Towards a General Theory of Translational Action : Skopos Theory Explained
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Towards a General Theory of Translational Action Skopos Theory Explained by Katharina Reiss, Hans J Vermeer (z-lib.org) (2)
6.4 Types of coherence
Here, we shall also add a few comments about culture-specific types of coher- ence and the interplay of intratextual and intertextual coherence. For example: a medieval chronicle reports the sighting of a fiery comet. The text describes how the people of the time believed that a comet an- nounced the outbreak of war and how they became frightened and tried to secure all their belongings. Let us further assume that this chronicle has to be translated into modern English. We no longer believe that the appearance of a comet is a bad omen. For us, comets are just some of many astronomical bodies, whose appearance and disappearance can be calculated on the basis of systematic observation. Now, what hap- pens if this chronicle is translated? We assume that a cultural transfer has to occur: a factual report (where the bad omen presented by a comet is taken for a fact and people act accordingly) is transformed into a report on ancient superstitions because we have a different Some further considerations regarding the theoretical groundwork 104 attitude towards comets today. (The cultural transfer is illustrated by the reactions to such a report: in the source culture, it was terror and anxiety; in the target culture, it would be a supercilious smile and an incredulous shake of the head about such a reaction.) The type of translation described in the example would be ‘normal’ in our culture today. However, we should bear in mind that, in principle, another strategy is possible. We could try to achieve the effect (i.e. terror and anxiety) by other means, e.g. converting the appearance of the comet into a declaration of war by a foreign power. We are not accustomed to doing this; therefore, we would not translate in this way. But we could. If we analyse common practices today, we come to the following conclu- sion: in many (perhaps even in most) cases, the intertextual linguistic coherence is retained, thus taking precedence over the intratextual cultural coherence. Often, we accept a cultural transfer more easily than a linguistic transfer. But this is by no means universal, as can be observed in advertising. Bro- chures promoting products are often culturally adapted in order to achieve the maximum persuasive effect through intratextual coherence, so that intertextual linguistic coherence becomes secondary. We only brought up the example of the comet to shake the reader’s conviction that certain translation types are simply ‘natural’. Let us look at a second example (provided by Jutta Kerkhoff, Germers- heim). In Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book, we can find the following passage: Father Wolf listened, and in the dark valley that ran down to a little river, he heard the dry, angry, snarly, singsong whine of a tiger who has caught nothing and does not care if all the jungle knows it. “The fool!” said Father Wolf. “To begin a night’s work with that noise! Does he think our bucks are like his fat Waingunga bullocks?” Dagobert von Mikusch (Kipling 1955) translates the passage into German as follows: Lauschend spitzte Vater Wolf die Ohren. Da vernahm er unten im Tal, das sich zu einem kleinen Bach hinabsenkt, das ärgerliche, schnarren- de, näselnde Gewinsel eines Tigers, der nichts geschlagen hat und den es nicht kümmert, daß alles Dschungelvolk sein Mißgeschick erfährt. “Der Narr, der!” knurrte Vater Wolf. “Die Nachtarbeit mit solchem Lärm zu beginnen! Glaubt er etwa, daß unsere Böcke ebenso dumm sind wie seine fetten Ochsen am Waingungafluß?” We are not going to analyse whether in this translation – between expansions and reductions, generalizations and specifications – all types of coherence Katharina Reiß and Hans J. Vermeer 105 have been achieved in an optimal manner (e.g. listened → spitzte lauschend die Ohren [= specification], dry → ∅ [= omission], heard → vernahm [= liter- ary register], caught → geschlagen [= technical term]). The tendency to add clarifying expansions (and here we are not referring just to this passage) often reflects the difficulties the translator had with regard to text comprehension and which, as it were, he wants to spare the target audience (the translator as a ‘humanitarian institution’). Nor do we want to discuss the question whether, under the almost naïve surface of the text, we can catch a glimpse of Kipling’s chauvinistic attitude towards the British colonies (Drescher 1979: 252). There is only one aspect we are concerned with at this point (which actually does relate to Kipling’s attitude) and this is the last word of the original passage: bullocks. It was translated as Ochsen, a word which is a close equivalent of oxen. Looking at the whole passage or the entire book, we can say that this is lexically coherent: like the bullock, an ox is a gelded bull. In current usage (at least in an industrialized country where few people are familiar with farm- ing and cattle breeding), however, ox usually refers to male cattle in general, whereas bulls are associated with fights in Spanish corridas. Metaphorically, a bull represents muscular strength (as strong as a bull), whereas the ox is considered a dumb animal. Non-metaphorically, we would not put it past an ox to be a dangerous animal, always ready to stubbornly attack anything that comes in its way. Kipling’s story is set in India. Indian bullocks (a species different from that of European domestic cattle) are the prototype of the powerful but gentle animal. To kill such a bullock is a cowardly act, whereas it takes courage, strength and skill to attack an ox. At the level of coherence between different ‘worlds’, Ochse is not an exact match. It is quite likely that there is no word in German which truly reflects all of the Indian connotations (Germany has not had a similar colonial experience). The “nearest connotational equivalent”, to play on Nida’s words, seems to be Büffel (cf., at word level, buffalo in English). Büffel, or perhaps friedlicher Büffel (‘peaceful buffalo’), would give a better idea of the massive yet gentle animal referred to by bullock in Kipling’s text. Of course, it could be argued that target recipients would not be aware of these details unless they consulted the original and that, therefore, hardly anything is lost by translating bullock by Ochse. But perhaps translating/in- terpreting is also an art … So far, nothing has been said about a hierarchy of verbal (lexical), co(n)text- ual and cultural phenomena with regard to coherence. But perhaps there could be a kind of ascending scale in our application of coherence rules. Such a scale would itself be culture-specific because reasons for culture-specific rules can only be found in the structure of the culture. Such an analysis goes beyond the scope of this discussion. Therefore, we shall limit ourselves to just one example to show what we mean: Some further considerations regarding the theoretical groundwork 106 For example: in the Middle Ages, cultural transfer was a very common rule. Paintings of Jesus’ birth show the event in a European setting. (In the painting of one particular 16th century painter of the Portuguese school, a shepherd has just brought a basket of eggs to the stable.) Auerbach (1953: 20-22) explains this transfer as a characteristic of medieval culture, where all history, which has been determined by God from time immemorial, was regarded as fixed and embedded in God’s omnipresence. Therefore, historical events could be represented in anachronistic ways. Medieval translations follow similar strategies. |
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