Translation faculty

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(teacher's comments on completed tasks)
Genre represents a form of social interaction between writers/translators and readers/target text receivers, as readers, when exposed to a text belonging to a particular genre, anticipate a specific textual structure.
There are different types of translation:
Oral and Written Translation,
Mixed Translation,
Computer-based/machine translation
Oral Translation is a translation performed orally, irrespectively of the form of the text-source, either consecutively or simultaneously.

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  Written translation is a translation performed in writing, irrespectively of the form of the text-source, either consecutively or simultaneously.
  
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  Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called; computer- aided translation, machine-aided human translation (MAHT) and interactive translation is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program..
  
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  Machine translation (MT) is a procedure whereby a computer program analyzes a source text and produces a target text without further human intervention . In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and post-editing .
  

According to the unit of translation, it can be:

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  sound translation;
  
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  word translation;
  
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  word-combination,
  
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  idioms or phraseological units translation;
  
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  sentence translation;
  
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  paragraph translation;
  
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  text translation;
  
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  lntertextual translation
  
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  According to the aim of translation, it can be: 
  
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  literal translation;
  
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  summative translation, when the main ideas are rendered in the translated version;
  
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  abstract/adnotare, CV not more than a paragraph (sometimes not more than 6-7 sentences).
  
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  Literary Translation – The name is pretty self-explanatory- It refers to the translation of literary works like stories, novels, poems, and plays. It is often considered the highest form of translation because a literary translation is so much more than the mere conveying of the meaning and context of the document in the source language into the target language. It involves incorporating the appropriate cultural nuances, translating humour, feelings, emotions, and other subtle elements of a particular work. A language consists of two important elements, which we may call form and meaning. Form refers to the letters, syllables, words, phrases, and sentence structures of a particular language. ... This is the nature of language. People use form to express meaning..
  
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  A written translation is the transposition of a text from one language to another. Not only does a good translation require an excellent knowledge of the source and target languages, but also both language cultures. Professional translators only work into their mother tongue, thus ensuring quality output.
  
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  Oral Translation means the oral translation of a document from English into a second language. Oral translation involves the translation of every word, not summarization. However, in oral translation, because of cultural and technical issues, further explanation may also be required and is encouraged.
  
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  Free translation generally implies that the translator is given greater latitude of expression when translating from an original source language to a target language and is more often not just a paraphrase. The source language grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest target language equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a re-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved. Free translation produces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. A so called 'intralingual translation', often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all.
  

2) Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. ... A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. Education translation converts written language from a source language to a target language to aid educational institutions in providing students and families with meaningful written communication to further academic progress.
Translation is when you transfer the meaning of a written text from one language to another. While the translator will choose just one method for the whole text, there are a number of techniques that can be used for individual words and phrases. By carefully choosing the right technique, the translator can convey each linguistic element in the most accurate way. We may divide into two groups translation techniques: Direct Translation Techniques and Indirect Translation Techniques.
Direct translation techniques are Borrowing, Calque (loan translation) and Literal Translation.
Indirect Translation Techniques are Transposition, Modulation, Equivalence/Reformulation, Adaptation, Compensation, Reduction and Expansion.
I think these steps can be help being good translator.
1. Advanced language knowledge
You can’t translate something unless you understand it.
And if you don’t understand the text fully, you risk misinterpreting it and delivering a translation that’s not completely accurate.
So good translators need to understand all meaning – including all the subtle nuances implied in the text.
That level of understanding requires advanced, near native level, knowledge of your source language.
Nothing less will do. 
2. Excellent writing skills
To be a good translator you must be a very good, and not merely adequate, writer in your target language.
You must have a way with words, the ability to write with flair.
And you’ll likely need to do that across a variety of text styles – promotional and marketing, formal/legal, casual, technical, etc.
To some extent you either have excellent writing ability and expression or you don’t.
But it’s also a skill you can hone and improve with experience and application.
3. In-depth cultural knowledge
Good translators have a deep understanding of both source and target cultures.
That’s general cultural knowledge like values systems and how people view the world.
And culture-specific aspects like pastimes, customs, etc.
You’ll often need cultural knowledge to grasp the significance or implication of text you’re translating.
And understanding the differences between your source and target language cultures will alert you to text that won’t work well or will have reduced impact when translated.
4. Sound research skills
Translators are always researching things – wording, meanings, vocab, jargon, background info.
The more efficiently you can do it the better.
5. Best practice translation and review processes
Translation is mentally challenging, and it’s dead easy for the odd shortcoming to slip through.
A little inaccuracy here, less than ideal wording there.
That’s why good translators stick like barnacles to proven translation processesYou need to too.
6. Sound translation judgement
Good translators make consistently good translation decisions.
On vocabulary and structures to use, when to be more literal / freer, what and how much to research, etc.
Much of this is instinctive, but with the right effort any translator can markedly improve this basic skill.
Translation teaching methods
a. Transmissionist approach: the traditional product- and teacher-centered approach, in which a text is given to each student to be translated and read in the class. The instructor provides the final answer in this approach.
b. Transactional approach: it is based on group learning, where teamwork and communication are very important, but still the final answer is provided by the instructor
c. Transformational approach: it is based on learning and is student-centered and relates to group learning and discovery of the learning process with the instructor's guidance. A bridge is built between class activity and translations done outside the universities' environment. Interactive Classroom Activities are Entry/Exit Tickets, Free Writing/Minute Paper/Question of the Day Exercise, Ice Breakers,Think–Pair–Share, Case Studies and Problem-Based Learning, Debate, Interview or Role Play, Interactive Demonstrations
Translation and interpretation enable communication across languages from source to target. Translation deciphers meaning of the written word from one language to another. Interpretation conveys meaning of the spoken word from one language to another. What is the importance of translation and interpretation?

Translation is necessary for the spreading new information, knowledge, and ideas across the world. It is absolutely necessary to achieve effective communication between different cultures. In the process of spreading new information, translation is something that can change history. What is translation and interpreting studies?

Translation and interpreting involves converting the meaning of written or spoken content from one language to another. ... Interpreting and translation relates to disciplines such as language studies, linguistics, comparative literature and cultural studies.
3) Lexical transfer is the point of transition between an unchangeable source text and an infinite array of target texts. The lexical unit can be: ( 1) a single word, (2) the ha- bitual co–occurrence of two words and (3) also a frequent recurrent uninterrupted string of words. Second and third notion refers to the definition of a collocation or a multi– word unit. It is common to consider a single word as a lexical unit. DENOTATION: The direct definition of the word that you find in the dictionary. CONNOTATION: The emotional suggestions of a word, that is not literal. Example 1. For example, denotation of the word “blue” is the color blue, but its connotation is “sad”—read the following sentence: The blueberry is very blue. We understand this sentence by its denotative meaning—it describes the literal color of the fruit.
Lexical transformations change the semantic core of a translated word. They can be classified into the following groups:
1.Lexical substitution, or putting one word in place of another. It often results from the different semantic structures of the source language and target language words. Thus the word молодой is not always translated as young; rather, it depends on its word combinability: молодой картофель is equal to new potatoes. This translation equivalent is predetermined by the word combination it is used in. This type of translation can hardly be called substitution, since it is a regular equivalent for this phrase.
Deliberate substitution as a translation technique can be of several subtypes:

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   Specification or substituting words with a wider meaning with words of a narrower meaning: Will you do the room? – Siz xonani tozalaysiz? I’ll get the papers on the way home. – Uyga ketayotib gazeta sotib olaman. The underlined English words have larger scopes of meaning than their Uzbek counterparts and their particular semantics is recognized from the context.
   
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   Generalization, or substituting words of a narrower meaning with those of a wider meaning: People don’t like to be stared at. – Odamlarga qarashni yoqtirmaydi. If we compare the semantic structure of the English and Russian verbs, we can see that the English stare specifies the action of seeing expressed by the Russian verb. The Uzbek смотреть can imply staring, facing, eyeing, etc. The specific meaning in the Uzbek sentence can be expressed by the adverb пристально. Another reason for generalization in translating can be that the particular meaning expressed by the source language word might be irrelevant for the translation receptor: She bought the long tea on her way home. – По дороге домой она купила китайского чаю. Oolong is a sort of Chinese tea but for the receptor this information is not important; therefore, the translator can generalize.
   
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   Differentiation is a rather rare technique of substitution. It takes place when we substitute a word by another one with parallel meaning, denoting a similar species: bamboo curtain – temir parda. Both bamboo and железо (iron) are materials known for their hard nature. They are used figuratively to denote the barriers between the Western and Communist countries (bamboo curtain in reference to China, temir parda in reference to other Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Aid) states. There are no hyponymic relations between the notions of bamboo and iron (though the referential area of temir parda is of course much wider than that of bamboo curtain.)
   
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   Modulation is a logical development of the notion expressed by the word: But outside it was raining. -– Ammo tashqarida yomg'ir yog'ayotgan edi.The primary equivalent of the word outside is снаружи. But it is impossible to say in Uzbek Ammo tashqarida yomg'ir yog'ayotgan edi.By means of unsophisticated logical operation the translator finds another equivalent: ko‘chada. Thus he takes into consideration a tradition of the word combination and acceptability of collocation. He is aided in this by the metonymical closeness of word meanings based on contiguity of the two notions.
   

2.Compensation is a deliberate introduction of some additional element in the target text to make up for the loss of a similar element in the source text. The main reason for this transformation is a vocabulary lacuna in the target language. For example, one of the Galsworthy’s characters was called a leopardess. But there is no one-word equivalent of the same stylistic coloring in Uzbek. Therefore, the translator compensated the word by using the word тигрица to characterize the lady.
Metaphoric transformations are based on transferring the meaning due to the similarity of notions. The target language can re-metaphorize a word or a phrase by using the same image (Don’t dirty your hands with that money! – Bu pullar bilan qo'lingizni iflos qilmang!) or a different one (Saraton hushtak chalganda pulni qaytarib beradi. – He will pay us our money back when hell freezes over). The source language metaphor can be destroyed if there is no similar idiom in the target language: Весна уже на пороге. – Spring is coming very soon. Or, on the contrary, the target text is metaphorized either to compensate a stylistically marked word or phrase whose coloring was lost for some reason, or merely to express a source language lacuna: U yangi hayot boshlashga qaror qildi. – He decided to turn over a new life.
Lexical translation is the task of translating individual words or phrases, either on their own (e.g., search-engine queries or meta-data tags) or as part of a knowledge-based Machine Translation (MT) system. There are two main types of equivalence; qualitative and quantitative.
A comparative analysis of translations reveals the fact that there are some lexical units in the source language that don’t have direct correspondence in the target language. These kinds of lexical units are called nonequivalent units. Nonequivalent units can be found primarily among neologisms, in the words indicating specific notions and national realities, among little known names and appellations for which we have to create occasional correspondences in the process of translation.
False friends are word pairings in two different languages that appear to have a similar phonetic form, but in reality have entirely different meanings, origins, and spelling. False friends are letters in two alphabets or words in two languages that sound or look similar, but greatly differ in meaning. For example, there's the English word 'embarrassed', compared with the Spanish word embarazada which actually means pregnant.
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Compiled by: K. Alimova