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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Didactics of Mathematics as a Scientific Discipline, 201-211.
© 1994 Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 202 COGNITIVE TOOLS ever, the computer's function is one of reorganizing the knowledge (Pea, 1985); it allows one to act on the sequence as a whole and to transform it by changing the parameter; it allows one, furthermore, to switch and establish links between a numerical and two graphical representations; it finally al- lows one to reason about the phenomena in a qualitative manner based on the spiderweb diagrams. Computer tools thus enable us to approach mathematics from different angles than is traditionally done. In the present case, learners may develop a view of a dynamical process that incorporates, in the process of repeated application of a function, numerical sequences, various graphical represen- tations, dependence on parameters such as c in the above example, and so forth. Many of these aspects of dynamical processes can be described in qualitative rather than quantitative terms. Computer tools may thus change the quality of the mathematical objects and processes the learner experi- ences (Dörfler, in press): Computer tools may become cognitive tools. In this chapter, several general issues about the use of cognitive tools for learning mathematics will be raised and discussed. For the teacher who intends to teach about dynamical systems, the question naturally arises which computer software to use as a tool. One choice is to use only a programming language and let the students program. For teach- ing dynamical processes, this would be a rather confining choice – both in terms of the student population and of the screen representations that could realistically be expected. The use of a spreadsheet is one viable alternative. Spreadsheets provide both the power to quickly compute the necessary se- 2. AN EXAMPLE TOMMY DREYFUS 203 quences of numbers and the possibility to graph what has been computed. Therefore, a spreadsheet appears to be a natural choice. In fact, the spreadsheet EXCEL has been used with groups of teachers and allowed them to quickly make some progress in understanding iterated ap- plications of functions – as far as the first two stages mentioned above. For example, cycles of length two, four, and eight are easily identified. Figure 1 shows the graph of a sequence with a cycle of length four (it is the graph of the first 100 iterations of the function f(x) = cx(1 - x) for c = 3.48 and 0.907). The teachers also had to contend with quite a few idiosyncrasies of the software in handling such simple operations as entering a fraction like 7/3 (which EXCEL insisted on interpreting as July 3) and even with mis- takes, such as the graph presented in Figure 2 (which was obtained for c = 1.25 and and is supposed to represent a function exponen- tially decreasing to minus infinity). But there are matters that are, from a didactic point of view, far more impor- tant than these technical details. A curriculum designer may want the power to decide on any of the following: the kind and presentation of the graphs to be used; simultaneous display of the numerical and graphical information; introduction of sophisticated, didactically motivated representations such as a spiderweb diagram; links between any two representations, for example, by highlighting the corresponding part of the graph when a portion of the numerical table is selected; coupling and decoupling of representations, and so forth. Some of these options happen to be available in EXCEL, others are not. Even those that are available may only be accessible to the user who has an intimate knowledge of the spreadsheet, or to the user who is given a spreadsheet that has been suitably prepared. COGNITIVE TOOLS The example, using a spreadsheet for dynamical systems, is indicative for a general situation: Readily available software may have a lot of the power required from a didactical point of view, but it may also have drawbacks due to the fact that it has been prepared for other purposes and, more impor- tantly, it may lack some features that are essential from a didactic point of view. Thus, computer tools introduce into mathematics education new op- portunities, but also new issues to be resolved. In the next section, I briefly mention some of the opportunities. In section 4, some of the issues will be discussed. 204 3. OPPORTUNITIES One of the most frequently mentioned opportunities offered by computer tools is their potential for using multiple-linked representations; for exam- ple, a numerical and two graphical representations were described in section 1. Kaput (this volume) gives some of the arguments that have been made in support of the expectation of a significant effect of multiple-linked representations on students' understanding of mathematical concepts such as ratio and function. The idea is to use several representations of the same concept in such a way that different aspects of the concept are stressed in different representations, and that students are helped to conceptually link corresponding aspects in different representations. At least in a number of specific cases that have been systematically investigated, many students succeeded in integrating information from several representations in a meaningful way (e.g., Schwarz & Dreyfus, in press). One of the reasons computers have increased the potential of multiple- linked representations is computer graphics, which make powerful dia- grammatic representations possible. Even without necessarily being linked to other representations, reasoning with diagrammatic representations has recently received much attention from researchers. Koedinger (1992), for example, has identified several properties of diagrams that make them supe- rior to a sentential (linear) representation of information for many reasoning and learning activities. These properties are of two types: structural and emergent. Structural refers to the spatial arrangement of information in a di- agram, for example, distance between related elements and whole-part rela- tionships. Emergent refers to the potential of perceptually realizing relation- ships that might otherwise (in a nondiagrammatic representation) escape attention. Computers make it possible to represent mathematics visually, by means of diagrams, with an amount of structure not offered by any other medium. Graphic computer-screen representations of mathematical objects and rela- tionships allow for direct action on these objects (rather, their representa- tives) and observation of the ensuing changes in the diagrammatically repre- sented relationships; this, in turn, may help the student to realize the exis- tence and understand the nature of relationships. It may be didactically more effective to invert the task, that is, to let students investigate the question which actions will lead to a given change in the relationships. The result of such action can often be implemented dynamically; actions can be repeated at liberty, with or without changing parameters of the action, and conclu- sions can be drawn on the basis of the feedback given by the computer pro- gram. The power of the computer for supporting diagrammatic reasoning in mathematics derives from these possibilities. Tall (this volume) provides a case in point. As an example, in Graphic Calculus, local straightness rather than a limiting process is suggested as a basis for developing the notion of derivative; Tall stresses that the goal is not only to provide solid visual intuitive support but also to sow the seeds for understanding the formal subtleties that occur later. This implies that the students learn to reason on the details of screen representations of concepts such as function, secant, tangent, gradient, gradient function, and so forth. Other projects that induce students to analyze the details of the relationships contained in screen diagrams and to reason based on such analysis have been reported by Kaput (1989), Yerushalmi and Chazan (1990), Shama and Dreyfus (in press), and others. A further tool-based opportunity for mathematics education is due to the possibility to let computers do the "trivial computations" such as the re- peated application of the function in the dynamical processes example. The idea is for students to operate at a high conceptual level; in other words, they can concentrate on the operations that are intended to be the focus of attention and leave the lower-level operations to the computer. For example, when learning algebraic manipulation, they can leave numerical computa- tions to the computer. Thus, they are enabled to operate on a high level in spite of a lack of lower-level skills. This gives a chance to remedial students to reenter the mathematics curriculum without necessarily first closing all gaps (Hillel, Lee, Laborde, & Linchevski, 1992). TOMMY DREYFUS 205 4. ISSUES The very same possibility, which was presented in the previous paragraph as an opportunity, may also be seen as causing a problem. Leaving numeri- cal computations to the computer during activities that aim at learning about algebraic manipulation can be considered as one step on a hierarchically or- dered sequence of levels: learn about numbers; automatize number computations for use when learning algebra; automatize algebraic manipulations for use when learning calculus; automatize integration for use when learning differential equations; automatize the solution of differential equations for use when learning 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. dynamics. This hierarchy could be made finer and far more extensive; it is, in fact, a subset of a partially ordered hierarchy; algebraic manipulations, for exam- ple, are needed not only in calculus but also in linear algebra, statistics, and so forth. But the point here is not to present a complete hierarchy; it is rather to focus attention on a problem that may arise when students are using com- puter tools with such hierarchies of capabilities: How do we prevent stu- dents from also using the computer for doing the algebra while they are supposed to be learning algebraic manipulations? More fundamentally: Should we prevent them? Later in life, they will hopefully have a computer algebra system at their disposal whenever they need one – so why not in school? But this raises the question whether and how it is possible to learn about algebra with an algebraic manipulator at one's fingertips (and analo- gous questions about number operations, calculus, etc.). Trying to answer this, one is led to the old issue about the relationship between skills and un- derstanding: whether and to what extent are manipulations necessary for conceptual understanding (see, e.g., Nesher, 1986). No generally accepted answer to this complex issue has been given yet, and none is to be expected in the near future. On the other hand, curriculum developers and teachers continue teaching and thus have to take decisions. At least two options are available: One is to attempt to develop curricular materials appropriate for use with a general computer algebra system and to investigate the effects. This approach has been taken mainly at the college level (Hillel, Lee, Laborde, & Linchevski, 1992; Karian, 1992). The other option is to design specific computer tools for use in educational settings. This approach seems to be predominant at the K-12 level; examples abound (e.g., Dreyfus, in press; Thompson, 1985; Yerushalmi & Schwartz, 1989). COGNITIVE TOOLS 206 4.1 Mathematically Versus Didactically Based Tools A dichotomy between mathematically based tools and didactically based tools thus becomes apparent. Mathematically based tools such as computer algebra systems and spreadsheets are constructed to conform to the inner logic and structure of the content area. They respect the logical (but not nec- essarily the psychological) order and structure inherent in the mathematical content area. They are applicable in a wide range of situations, which is not limited to educational ones. If, for example, students learn about derivatives or integrals with a computer algebra system like Maple, they are likely to acquire the ability to use that tool for finding and using derivatives and inte- grals beyond the specific calculus course within which the tool was used. More than that, they also acquire some familiarity with a mathematical software tool that has capabilities far beyond the ones under direct consider- ation, and they can potentially exploit these capabilities. On the other hand, students may become very apt at using derivatives or integrals in the particular given mathematically based tool within which they have learned about them, but not even recognize these concepts outside of the tool – conceptual transfer is notoriously weak. The notion of, say, derivative may be linked for these students to the tool within which they TOMMY DREYFUS have learned about the notion. Moreover, this tool may not be didactically appropriate in the sense that it supports the execution of procedures while neglecting the underlying conceptual structure. Specifically, a mathemati- cally based tool will presumably be able to carry out computations and draw graphs very efficiently, but it will not usually take into account any of the conceptual difficulties arising for the student who grapples with the con- struction of an appropriate mental image for, say, the notion of limit or derivative. And it is exactly with these specific, in some cases, well-known difficulties in mind that didactically based tools like Graphic Calculus have been designed. Such tools aim at the creation of learning experiences that promote the progressive construction by the student of flexible and widely applicable concept images of such notions as ratio, function, derivative, and so forth. One aim of the construction of such concept images is flexibility in problem-solving. Another, related aim is to establish connections: The con- cept will probably come up in a different framework some time later, and we may hope the student will recognize it as the same concept, exactly be- cause of the flexibility of thought that was inherent in the learning experi- ence. If local concept acquisition is the main goal of a curriculum, a didacti- cally based tool may thus be the correct choice. But precisely this same feature is a main problem of didactically based tools: They may be too local, too specifically designed, and adapted to a Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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