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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
has the limit a as n tends to in-
finity if, corresponding to any positive number no matter how small, there may be found an integer N (depending on such that: EFRAIM FISCHBEIN 237 This is the abstract formulation of the notion of the limit of a sequence. Small wonder that when confronted with it for the first time, one may not fathom it in a few minutes. There is an unfortunate, almost snobbish attitude on the part of some writers of textbooks, who present the reader with the definition without a has the limit 0, for increasing n: as But we cannot go directly from the intuitive representation to the formal, rigorous definition. The formal definition reverses the order of ideas, con- tradicts the natural, dynamic representation of the process. And this makes the definition of limit, as a matter of fact, counterintuitive, difficult to grasp. We do not start by describing the process of approaching a by a sequence of numbers We start by mentioning, strangely enough, a positive number "no matter how small," and afterwards we introduce N and That is, it is not that depends on N (as happens in reality) – the interval be- comes smaller as we go on increasing N (respective n) – but, in the formal definition, we make N "dependent on " We reverse the natural order of the thinking process. As a matter of fact, the formal definition above is not entirely "purified" from every intuitive element. The term "tends" ("the sequence has the limit a as n tends to infinity . . .") is not a purely abstract term. We continue to keep in mind, tacitly, an intuitive model. The term "tends" has a psychological, not a mathematical or a physical meaning. People "tend to," are "inclined" to. "Tend to" has a connotation of desire, of aspiration. Numbers do not tend. They exist or do not exist. The term "tends to" is what remains from the initial intuitive, dynamic interpretation of the concepts of convergence and limit. It expresses the potential infinity that is intuitively 238 FORMAL, ALGORITHMIC, AND INTUITIVE COMPONENTS thorough preparation as though an explanation were beneath the dignity of a mathematician . . . . There is a definite psychological difficulty in grasping this precise definition of limit. Our intuition suggests a "dynamic" idea of a limit as the result of the pro- cess of "motion": We move on through the row of integers 1, 2, 3, . . . n, . . . and then observe the behavior of the sequence We feel that the approach should be observable. But this "natural" attitude is not capable of clear mathematical formulation. To arrive at a precise definition we must reverse the order of steps; instead of first looking at the independent variable n and then at the dependent variable we must base our definition on what we have to do if we wish actually to check the statement In such a procedure, we must first choose an arbitrarily small margin around a and then determine whether we can meet this condition by taking the independent variable n sufficiently large. Then, by giving symbolic names, and N, to the phrases "arbitrarily small mar- gin" and "sufficiently large n" we are led to the precise definition of limit. (Courant & Robbins, 1941/1978, pp. 291-292) Intuitively, it is relatively easy to understand, as Courant and Robbins say, the concepts of limit and convergence. Intuitively, one may consider a se- quence of numbers that come closer and closer to a certain number a as n tends to The number a is then the limit of the sequence and the se- quence is said to converge to a. If one adds also an example, things become totally clear intuitively. For instance, one may consider the sequence whose nth term is The series acceptable. I suppose that mathematicians have felt intuitively that, by try- ing to eliminate completely any intuitive residual (in this case, in which the processuality is essential), they would have made the formal product mean- ingless. The term "tends to" is a compromise between the dynamic of the primitive, intuitive representation of convergence and the need to freeze an infinite given set of elements in a formal definition. When one "tends," one does not move, but one does not stay totally rigid either. As an effect of this conflictual relationship between the formal definition and the intuitive representation of the concept of limit, various misconcep- tions may appear. Shlomo Vinner (1991) asked 15 gifted students in a pres- tigious high school to define the concept of limit (after the concept had been taught). Only one student gave a formulation that could be accepted, though incomplete. The other 14 students exhibited some typical misconception. Shlomo Vinner mentions the following main misconceptions: 1. A sequence "must not reach its limit" (thus the sequence 1, 1, 1, . . . would be said not to converge to a limit). 2. The sequence should be either monotonically increasing or monotonically de- creasing. Thus, for instance, the sequence whose nth element is given by does not tend to a limit. 3. The limit is the "last" term of the sequence. You arrive at the limit after "going through" infinitely many elements. (Vinner, 1991, p. 79) As Cornu (1991) has shown, the term "tends to" possesses various primi- tive meanings in the student's mind, and these interact with the formal con- cept. "Tends to" may mean: to approach (eventually staying away from it) to approach . . . . without reaching it to approach . . . . just reaching it" to resemble (. . . such as "this blue tends towards violet") (Cornu, 1991, p. 154) The interpretation the student will confer on the term "tends to" in relation to the concept of limit will then depend on his or her intuitive model. The student who does not accept that the sequence 1, 1, 1, ... does converge to a limit (which is, in fact, 1) holds, intuitively, that "tends to" implies: (a) that the intervals between the successive terms of the sequence and the limit have to become smaller and smaller, and (b) that the limit is never reached. Both conditions are never fulfilled in the above example (for a discussion of the epistemological obstacles related to the concept of limit, see Cornu, 1991). As a matter of fact, the concept of limit is a contradictory one (in the di- alectical, Hegelian, sense) because our mind is naturally not adapted to the conceptualization of actual infinity. EFRAIM FISCHBEIN 239 Another example: The idea that the area of a circle is the limit of se- quences of polygons cannot, in fact, be grasped intuitively: It is a contradic- tory one. When we have the circle, we have no more polygons. Intuitively, a polygon has a number of sides, maybe a very great number of sides. A "something" that is simultaneously circle and polygon has no meaning at an intuitive level. The contradiction may be eliminated only at a pure, formal level. But the pure, formal level, is, itself, psychologically impossible. We tend to it in mathematics, but, as a matter of fact, we never reach it psycho- logically. As an effect, we get the epistemological obstacles of the students con- cerning the notions of limit and continuity, that is, the various partial inter- pretations we may find in students (the limit is never reached or the limit is always reached). The same types of obstacle may be identified in the history of mathemat- ics. Some mathematicians (like Robins, 1679-1751, see Cornu, 1991, p. 161) claimed that the limit can never be attained. Others, like Jurin (1685- 1750) said that the "ultimate ratio between two quantities is the ratio reached at the instant when the quantities cancel out" (cited in Cornu, 1991). These contradictory attitudes gave birth to the concept of "infinitesimals" or "arbitrary small numbers" that express the effort to conceptualize a pro- cess intuitively seen as endless. Let me add another example. In a study devoted to measuring the degree of intuitiveness of a solution (Fischbein, Tirosh, & Melamend, 1981), the following question has been addressed: Given a segment AB = 1m. Let us suppose that another segment is added. Let us continue in the same way, adding segments of etc. What will be the sum of the segments AB + BC + CD ... (and so on)? (Fischbein, Tirosh, & Melamed, 1981, p. 494, 495) The following categories of answers have been recorded: 240 FORMAL, ALGORITHMIC, AND INTUITIVE COMPONENTS As one can see, only a very small percentage of students gave the correct answer (S = 2). The explanation is that, as we mentioned above, actual in- finity is counterintuitive. In order to accept that the sequence . . . = 2, one has to grasp intuitively the entire actual infinity of the se- quence. Because this does not happen, the students easily forget the correct answer (S = 2) and consider the infinity of the sequence as a potential infin- ity (the sum tends to 2, or the sum is smaller than 2). Asking high school or college students to find the decimal equivalent of they willingly write On the other hand, they would hardly accept that 0.333 ... equals As in the above example, they claim 1. Sum = 2 (5.6%) (correct) 2. Sum = infinite (51.4%) 3. "The sum is smaller than 2" or "The sum tends to 2" (16.8%). (Fischbein, Tirosh, & Melamed, 1981, p. 499) that 0.333 ... tends to We encounter here the same type of intuitive ob- stacle as above. In addition, one has to emphasize the following aspect: If a student accepts that he or she should accept also that The relation of equality is symmetrical. In reality, as it has been shown (see Kieran, 1981), the intuitive, tacit model associated with the equality sign is usually that of an input output process that is not sym- metrical! 6. THE IMPACT OF A RIGID ALGORITHM ON AN INTUITIVE REPRESENTATION In a series of interviews with preservice mathematical teachers, the follow- ing type of problem has been presented: Five kilos of apples cost 15 shekels. How much will 7 kilos of apples cost? It is a classical elementary problem of proportionality. Some solved the problem by determining the price of one kilo (15 : 5 = 3) and, after multi- plying by 7, they got: 3 x 7 = 21. Some students wrote directly the propor- tion A second problem has been posed: Seven workers finish a certain piece of work in 28 days. In how many days will five workers finish the work? The students affirmed that there was also a problem of proportion and wrote: They found that x = 20, and this was their result. They were then asked to analyze the answer: If seven workers finish the piece of work in 28 days, less workers (that is, five), will finish the work in less days. The students understood that they made a mistake. They have applied a schema automatically, blindly; and thus the intuitive, direct inter- pretation, which would have been useful, did not function. Sometimes, the intuitive background manipulates and hinders the formal interpretation or the use of algorithmic procedures. But, sometimes, it is the blind application of schemas that leads to wrong solutions, although the ap- peal to a direct, intuitive interpretation would have prevented the solver from giving an erroneous answer. 7. THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE FORMAL CONSTRAINTS AND SOLVING ALGORITHMS Solving procedures, acting as overgeneralized models, may sometimes lead to wrong solutions in disregard of the corresponding formal constraints. Let me consider some examples. It has been found that students often would write sin (a+b) = sin a + sin b, or log (a+b) = log a + log b. Obviously, the property of distributivity of multiplication over addition [m(a+b) = ma + mb] does not apply in the above situations. Students forget that one deals with a formal property of EFRAIM FISCHBEIN 241 Such categories of mistakes are well-known to teachers. Maybe, what is less understood is that, in order to overcome such errors, the student needs to gain a fuller understanding of the relationships between the formal and the algorithmic components in mathematics. The student has to understand, in my opinion, the formal basis (definitions and theorems) that justifies an al- gorithm. It is the blind learning of algorithms that leads to these types of misuse. In the absence of a clear understanding of the formal frame and jus- tification, the superficial similarity of problems leads to wrong generaliza- tions. 8. THE FIGURAL CONCEPTS A most interesting situation with regard to the interaction between the figu- ral (intuitive) and conceptual aspects occurs in the domain of geometry. Psychology textbooks usually distinguish between concepts and images as the two basic components of a thinking activity. But geometrical figures occupy a special position. What is a line, a triangle, a sphere, or a cube? Certainly they are images. They possess a certain shape. But, in the flux of a geometrical reasoning they are not mere images in the usual sense. (I am not referring to drawings. I am referring to geometrical, mathematical entities.) They are ideal, abstract entities. They possess a kind of universality that characterizes only concepts. Every property of a geometrical figure is de- rived from the definition of the respective figure, from the axiomatic struc- ture to which it belongs. Consequently, one may claim that geometrical fig- ures, though spatial images, possess qualities that characterize only con- cepts: ideality, abstractness, universality, definition dependence, a kind of purity and perfection that does not exist in nature. In geometrical reasoning, we deal with figures that are not mere images, but idealized mental entities completely subordinated to axiomatic constraints. We may then claim that a geometrical figure is a mental object that is not reducible to usual concepts or images. It is not a mere concept, because it is a spatial representation. A concept is an idea that, strictly speaking, does not possess figural qualities. On the other hand, a geometrical figure is not a mere image, because all its properties are strictly, rigorously imposed by a definition. A geometrical figure is, at the same time, figure and concept. The drawing of a circle or a triangle is a graphic model of a geometrical figure, not the geometrical fig- ure itself. FORMAL, ALGORITHMIC, AND INTUITIVE COMPONENTS 242 multiplication and addition. They transform it in a solving model and, by external similarity, it becomes a solving procedure. The same type of common mistake, in which a solving technique does not obey the formal rules and is thus wrongly applied, appears in the following example: But that total symbiosis between figural (intuitive) and conceptual prop- erties in a geometrical figure is usually only an ideal situation. Very often, the formal constraints and the figural ones interact and conflict among themselves, and such conflicts may influence the flow of geometrical rea- soning. It is difficult for children to accept that a square is a rectangle, a rhombus, or even a parallelogram, even if they know the respective definitions. The figural, the Gestalt particularities are so strong that they annihilate the effect of the formal constraints. Alessandra Mariotti (1992) reports the following example: A 16-year-old student, Alessia (Grade 11) has been given the following problem. How many angles do you see in Figures 1a and 1b? (see Figure 1) Alessia: Whenever I see two lines that intersect, I know that the space between the lines is an angle. I think that in both figures there is only one angle, even if, at first, I thought that in the second figure there were two angles. I can explain my supposition. First I thought that in this representation, Line 1 and Line 2 form one angle and Line 2 and Line 3 form a second angle. However, now I think that there is only one angle formed by crossing lines (1,2) and that Line 3 is the bisector of this angle. (Marrioti, 1992, p. 11) Alessia's difficulty is generated by the fact that the concept is unable to con- trol the figure. And this, not because she does not possess the concept cor- rectly but because the figure still carries with it Gestalt features inspired by practice. As a matter of fact, the complete symbiosis discussed above does not yet exist; if you cut a piece of cake into two halves, you get two pieces of cake; not three (Alessia's first interpretation). If Line 3 is the bisector of the angle it cannot belong, at the same time, to two other angles (the second interpretation). In the above example, the concept of angle does not yet control totally the intuitive, figural properties and their interpretation. In the interaction between the formal and the intuitive constraints, it is the intuitive constraints that are, in this example, decisive. EFRAIM FISCHBEIN 243 8. SUMMARY The main claim of the present paper is that, in analyzing the students' math- ematical behavior, one has to take into account three basic aspects: the for- mal, the algorithmic, and the intuitive. The formal aspect refers to axioms, definitions, theorems, and proofs. The algorithmic aspect refers to solving techniques and standard strategies. The intuitive aspect refers to the degree of subjective, direct acceptance by an individual of a notion, a theorem, or a solution. Sometimes these three com- ponents converge. But, usually, in the processes of learning, understanding, and problem-solving, conflictual interactions may appear. Sometimes a solving schema is applied inadequately because of superficial similarities in disregard of formal constraints. Sometimes, a solving schema, deeply rooted in the student's mind, is mistakenly applied despite a potentially correct, in- tuitive understanding. But, usually, it is the intuitive interpretation based on a primitive, limited, but strongly rooted individual experience that annihilates the formal control or the requirements of the algorithmic solution, and thus distorts or even blocks a correct mathematical reaction. The interactions and conflicts between the formal, the algorithmic, and the intuitive components of a mathematical activity are very complex and usually not easily identified and understood. Theoretical analyses, attentive observations, and experimental research have to collaborate in revealing the multiple sources of mistaken attitudes in a mathematical activity. This im- plies that the intimate collaboration between psychology and didactic expe- rience represents a basic condition for the progress of mathematics eduction. 244 FORMAL, ALGORITHMIC, AND INTUITIVE COMPONENTS Boyer, C. B., & Merzbach, U. C. (1989). A history of mathematics. New York: Wiley. Cornu, B. (1991). Limits. In D. Tall (Ed.), Advanced mathematical thinking (pp. 153-165), Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. Courant, R., & Robbins, H. (1978). What is mathematics? An elementary approach to ideas Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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