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Bog'liq
1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien

laws on the three different levels of operations that reveals arithmetic as an
organic whole to the student . . . ." (Müller, 1838, p. v, translated). The di-
dactic centerpiece of the book is the close connection of algebraic calculus and
implicit combinatorics. Combinatorial exercises are carried out already at the
beginning of algebraic calculus; an explicit combinatorics appears later as an
introduction to the theory of series. Thus, the entire volume is devoted to the
combinatorial program from the initial stage of the reform. The book was
eminent among the mass of textbooks in making the syntactic structure of
formulae transparent. In view of this and of the fact that Müller was an excel-
lent representative of the movement in favor of the Realschule, it is all the
more serious that, although the book contained some applications from
physics, stoichiometry, and interest calculation, these amounted to 10% of
the exercises at the utmost (cf. Jahnke, 1990b, p. 421). Even if one takes into
consideration that teaching geometry besides arithmetic required about the
same amount of time, this does not alleviate the purism of the formal-syntac-
tical conception of arithmetic and algebra.
The second edition of Müller's work in 1855, while limited to one small
volume, even increased this formal tendency by making combinatorics even
an explicit object of teaching at the lower level. The efforts at reforming
mathematics instruction initiated by the new Realgymnasien and
Oberrealschulen never put into question the systematic character of the subject
matter, they seldom led to an extension of applications, and, for present-day
readers, it is almost upsetting to see that an extension of the mathematical
subject matter in 1892 went toward "teaching and exercising the solving of
fourth-degree equations and the method of approximate solution of numeri-
HANS NIELS JAHNKE
425


cal, algebraic, and transcendent equations" (Jahnke, 1990b, p. 464, trans-
lated).
5. LOSS OF MEANING
During the second half of the 19th century, algebraic analysis increasingly
lost its mathematical and cultural significance, nevertheless remaining the
leading concept of school mathematics until the beginning of our century. The
history of this theory can thus be subsumed for this period under the heading
of loss of meaning and inertia. Its mathematical loss of meaning is evident. In
succession to Cauchy, a quite novel view of real and complex analysis and of
its conceptual foundations had emerged. Techniques and concepts of the
older algebraic analysis were partly scientifically discredited (as the use of di-
vergent series) and partly occurred only in subordinate places in special
chapters. The view could no longer claim a unifying role. This loss of signif-
icance is illustrated dramatically by a remark made by the then well-known
textbook author Ernst Koppe, who in 1866 said that treatment of combina-
torics in school was "a pastime alien to the scientific seriousness of the math-
ematical method" (pp. 10-11, translated).
Second, the original conception of school mathematics also suffered a cul-
tural loss of significance. In the middle of the 19th century, idealist and ro-
manticist philosophy had been thoroughly discredited. The general beliefs in
theory of science, which had established an intrinsic connection between edu-
cation and theoretical science, had dissolved. The stress on the holistic char-
acter of the world, on humanity and on knowledge, had ceded to a more
pragmatic attitude. Against the idealistic construction of comprehensive sys-
tems, greater weight was now placed on experience and on the particular.
This necessarily also changed the attitudes toward education. The "unity of

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