Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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459 460 METAL CATALYSIS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY [60]Fullerene La 2 @C 80 Graphene SWCN Figure 34.1 Representative examples of [60]fullerene, endohedral fullerene, graphene and a single-walled carbon nanotube. The resonance destabilization that results from the adjacent pentagons (8 π electrons which do not satisfy the H¨uckel rule) and reduction of the π-orbital overlap due to the cage curvature explain the lower stability of those so-called non-IPR fullerenes [9–11].
Fullerenes as molecular allotropes of carbon are soluble in some organic solvents such as carbon disulfide, toluene, o- dichlorobenzene (o-DCB), or chlorobenzene. Therefore, they undergo a variety of chemical reactions in solution to afford a huge number of fullerene derivatives which, in general, preserve the chemical and physical properties of pristine fullerenes. The singular 3D geometry of fullerenes showing a singular sp 2,3
hybridization [12] and containing 30 (for C 60 ) or more (for higher fullerenes such as C 70 and C 80 ) highly reactive double bonds constitutes a new scenario where a variety of different chemical reactions can be tested. The calculated bond distances in the C–C bonds in [60]fullerene reveal significant differences between the [5,6]- and [6,6]-bonds with values of 1.45 and 1.38 ˚ A, respectively. Because of the mixed character of 1,3,5-cyclohexatrienes and [5] radialenes, C 60 behaves as a highly strained electron-deficient olefin whose chemical reactivity is mainly driven by strain relief. Therefore, addition reactions have been widely used [13]. Interestingly, although similar reactivity patterns have also been observed for higher fullerenes, the chemical reactivity tends to decrease significantly with their size [14–16]. Addition reactions, electron transfer reactions, and reactions involving the opening of the fullerene cage (chemical surgery) have been thoroughly studied on fullerenes. Other reactions such as nucleophilic additions, cycloaddition reactions, free- radical additions, halogenations, hydroxylation, redox reactions, and metal transition complexations have been reported for C 60 as well. Furthermore, fullerenes are easily reduced by electron-rich chemical reagents as well as electrochemically. Their oxidation, however, is considerably more difficult to achieve [17]. Thus, electrochemical measurements showed the formation from the monoanion to the hexaanion [18]. For a more comprehensive and detailed study of the properties and reactivity of fullerenes, the reader is referred to the monographs that comprehensively cover the properties and chemical reactivity of C 60 and higher fullerenes [13–16]. 34.3 METAL-MEDIATED REACTIONS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY The high electrophilicity of fullerenes has resulted in one of the first natural approaches in their chemical modification based on the nucleophilic addition of organometallic reagents, such as organolithium [19] or Grignard salts [20].
METAL-MEDIATED REACTIONS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY 461 Although, it has become one of the classical methods for fullerene functionalization [21–23], the use of organometallic reagents presents important limitations, namely, the control of the reaction to the monoaddition product or the com- patibility with some functional groups. More recently, however, fullerene chemistry has attracted an increasing interest in expanding its classical methodology to new reactions based on the use of transition metals. In this regard, the first example was the use of Fisher’s carbene for the preparation of methanofullerenes [24] by thermal reaction of C 60 with [methyl(methoxymethylene)]pentacarbonylchromium. Nickel(0) has also been used for the construction of a fused cyclohexadiene ring to C 60 based on a [2 +2+2] cycloaddition of 1,6-diynes to [60]fullerene [25]. Fulleropyrrolidines bearing one or two alkyne units on the pyrrolidine ring have been synthesized as building blocks analogous to 1,6-enynes, which have previously been used for the construction of a wide variety of carbo- and heterocyclic systems mostly through transition-metal-catalyzed processes. As a matter of fact, these so-called fuller-1,6-enynes (the term emphasizes the singularity of this highly strained double bond component, belonging to a curved surface molecule) gave rise to a series of chemical transformations affording novel structures on the fullerene sphere [26, 27]. Above all, fullerenynes have also proved to be suitable substrates for the cobalt-mediated Pauson– Khand (PK) reaction [28]. Indeed, despite its electron-poor character, [60]fullerene has a spherical surface with 30 reactive double bonds; in addition, the typical competing β-hydride elimination reaction has been overcome through the absence of hydrogen atoms in its structure. Therefore, when a 1,6-fullerenyne (1) is treated with Co 2 (CO) 8 at room temperature, a cobalt–fullerene complex 2 could be isolated and characterized. This complex at 60 ◦ C undergoes an intramolecular PK reaction that leads regioselectively to the formation of a cis-1 bis-cycloadduct (3) featuring a highly rigid system containing three fused pentagonal rings. Fullerenynes 4, suitably functionalized with two propargyl groups, also underwent the PK reaction affording cis-1-bis-cycloadduct 5 resulting from only one [2 +2+1] cycloaddition reaction as main product. The tris-cycloadduct 6 formed from a twofold PK reaction was also obtained, although in a poor yield (5%) due, probably, to the high strain of the resulting geometry, presenting the unprecedented structure with five fused pentagonal rings on the fullerene surface [29]. All attempts to carry out the intermolecular PK reaction with C 60 and alkynes using Co 2 (CO)
8 were unsuccessful. However, the reactivity of the fullerene double bond has proved to be as reactive as a conventional olefin. Indeed, fullerenyne
(Scheme 34.1) [28]. A further step has been the use of transition-metal catalysis in fullerene chemistry as a smart alternative to avoid high loading of organometallic reagent and to achieve remarkable levels of reactivity and selectivity. An interesting example of this approach has been the arylation and alkenylation of fullerenes, catalyzed by a rhodium complex, as reported by Itami [30]. Similar to the reaction of organoboron compounds with electron-deficient alkenes and alkynes, rhodium(I) complexes catalyze the hydroarylation of C 60 (or C 70 ) with arylboronic acid in aqueous solution. The reaction proceeds in a monoaddition-selective manner with a high regioselectivity when [70]fullerene is used, affording products 10 and 11, respectively (Scheme 34.2). The use of [Rh(cod)(MeCN) 2 ]BF 4 gave rise to an optimal combination of good yield (61%) and excellent selectivity ( >95%), showing an important effect of the counteranion of the rhodium complexes in sharp contrast to the reported example of conventional olefins. The authors claimed a catalytic cycle reaction where the cationic Rh complex and water produce the Rh–OH species. After transmetalation with RB(OH) 2 , the Rh–R species undergoes addition on the C 60 double bond. Finally, protonolysis of the formed fullerenyl Rh species affords the product R–fullerene–H (10, 11) with the regeneration of the cationic Rh complex. Shortly afterward, the same authors also developed a palladium(II) catalyst [Pd(2-PyCH = NPh)(OCOC 6 F
) 2 ] for the hydroarylation of fullerene with boronic acids, which presents good catalytic activity (reaction generally occurring at room temperature), bench stability in the solid state, and efficiency under air conditions. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed unequivocally the addition of the aryl moiety and hydrogen in a 1,2-fashion at the α double bond of C 70 , with
the phenyl group attached at the position close to the pole of the C 70 unit [31]. Analogously, Co-catalyzed hydroalkylation of C 60 with reactive alkyl bromides in the presence of Mn reductant and H 2 O at room temperature gave the monoalkylated C 60 (12) in good to high yields (Scheme 34.3). The reaction probably occurs through a reduced Co(0 or I) complex that promotes generation of a radical (R · ) and the addition to C 60 [32].
Single-bonded fullerene dimers RC 60 –C 60 R, featuring a direct covalent bond between the two C 60 cages, are unusual structures with potentially interesting properties due to the interaction of two adjacent fullerene cages. These dimers are formed as a mixture of racemic and meso isomers because of the lack of symmetry of their 1,4 addition pattern, which are in equilibrium with the monomer radical (RC 60 C •) in solution [33]. A straightforward preparation was reported by Yamamoto et al. [34] by the dimerization of monosubstituted hydrofullerenes using catalytic amounts of copper(II) acetate in the presence of air to yield dimers 13 (Scheme 34.4).
462 METAL CATALYSIS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY N R
O O
8 (41%) 9 (41%) Co 2 (CO) 8 , Tol N N O 60 °C, 2−3 h N molecular sieves N O R 1 Co 2 (CO) 8 , 60 °C, 2−3 h N O
1 Co Co(CO) 3 (CO)
3 R R R N O O O R 1 Tol
60 °C, 2−3 h Tol Co
(CO) 8
2 3 H N O O R 1 Tol, rt
+ 5 N O R 1
+
Fulleropyrrolidines endowed with one (1) or two (4) propargyl groups efficiently and regioselectively undergoing the PK reaction with [Co 2 (CO) 8 ] to afford cis-1 bis-cycloadduct and tris-cycloadduct fullerene structures with three or five pentagonal rings fused onto the fullerene surface, respectively. H Ar Ar −B C 60 [Rh(cod)(MeCN) 2 ]BF
4 (10% mol) o-DCB/water 4 : 1 60 °C C 70 Same conditions Ar H Ar = Aryl, heteroaryl, alkenyl B = B(OH) 2 , B(pin), BF 3 K
11 Scheme 34.2 The addition of organoboron reagents onto fullerenes with good efficiency and selectivity by using catalytic amounts of Rh or Pd (o-DCB, ortho-dichlorobenzene). A wide range of functional groups are tolerated: fullerene-bound dendritic homodimers and various cross-dimers, which are otherwise difficult to obtain, were thus synthesized in good to high yields. An intriguing copper-catalyzed radical reaction that involves a formal C–H bond activation has been reported by Nakamura. The reaction efficiently couples an arylacetylene or enyne to a penta(aryl)[60]fullerene bromide in a formal [4 + 2] fashion to form a dihydronaphthalene ring fused to a fullerene sphere [35]. METAL-MEDIATED REACTIONS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY 463 o -DCB 25 °C H R CoCl 2 dppe (10% mol) Mn (3 equiv) water (10 equiv) R −Br
+ 12 Scheme 34.3 The reaction of alkyl bromides to fullerenes yielding monoalkylated addition products by using catalytic amounts of Co in the presence of Mn.
air, 25
°C Cu(AcO)
2 (10% mol) R R
H R
R
Copper(II)-mediated synthesis of [60]fullerene dimers. Palladium acetate catalyzes cycloaddition onto C 60 of a variety of anilides (14) through a C–H bond activation, affording fulleroindolines (15) in a highly regioselective manner (Scheme 34.5) [36]. 34.3.1 Metal-Mediated Retro-Cycloadditions In parallel to the development of exohedral functionalization of the fullerene sphere, many efforts have been devoted to the search for efficient retro-functionalization methodologies for the most important fullerene cycloadduct derivatives. N O R 1 R Pd(II) N H O R 1 R H C 60 Pd(II)
Pd(0) N O R 1 R Oxidant 15 14 Scheme 34.5 Fulleroindolines prepared by Pd(II) catalysis from anilides and C 60 .
464 METAL CATALYSIS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY The sequences of cycloaddition– retro-cycloaddition could indeed be used as a smart strategy to carry out protection– deprotection protocols that could selectively add or remove addends from fullerenes while leaving others unperturbed. Therefore, retro-cycloaddition protocols have been reported by the use of thermal treatment [37], microwave irradiation [38], chemical reduction [39], electrochemical reduction [40], or electrochemical oxidation [41]. Important classes of fullerene derivatives have been successfully deprotected by transition-metal-mediated or catalyzed processes. The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of azomethine ylides onto fullerenes is considered one of the most straightforward procedures for their chemical functionalization. The resulting fulleropyrrolidines (pyrrolidino[3,4:1,2][60]fullerenes) are among the most frequently studied fullerene derivatives as a consequence of their easy synthetic preparation and their stability. Therefore, this functionalization procedure was frequently chosen as a suitable route for the preparation of a wide variety of stable modified fullerenes with interest in biology and materials science. Nevertheless, the use of transition metals, such as copper(II) or rodhium(I), promotes a highly efficient retro-cycloaddition from differently substituted pyrrolidino[60]fullerenes, affording quantitatively pristine [60]fullerene, with the recovery of the typical magenta color of the [60]fullerene solution [42]. The 1,3-dipolar retro-cycloaddition reaction turned out to be quite general and occurs in the presence of an excess of a highly efficient dipolarophile (30 equiv), such as maleic anhydride, which traps the corresponding ylide resulting from the thermal retro-cycloaddition. In the absence of the metal salts, the reaction yields depend on the refluxing temperature, the pyrrolidine substitution pattern [unsubstituted (16a), monosubstituted (16b, c, e), and disubstituted (16d)] (Scheme 34.6), and the nature of the substituents on the pyrrolidine ring, which influence the stability of the thermally generated 1,3-dipole. Thus, when compounds 16a–e were refluxed in o-DCB for different times (8–18 h) in the presence of maleic anhydride (30 equiv) and 1 equiv of copper(II) triflate (CuTf 2 ), the reaction led, in all cases, to the quantitative formation of the parent unsubstituted C 60 (determined by HPLC), with the solutions showing the typical magenta color of C 60 . Interestingly, the reaction also proved to be highly efficient with the monoadduct mixture of the three isomers of [70]pyrrolidinofullerene and with the N-ethyl pyrrolidino-Sc 3 N@C 80 , giving rise to pristine C 70 and Sc
3 N@C
80 almost
quantitatively, respectively (Scheme 34.7). The formation of the azomethyne ylide as an intermediate resulting from the retro-cycloaddition process was proved by carrying out trapping experiments by using N-phenylmaleimide (NPM). Thus, compound 17 was refluxed in o-DCB in the presence of an excess of NPM(10 equiv). In addition to the obtained C 60 (70%), the cycloadduct (18) resulting from the N Me R 2 R 1 Dipolarophile, o -DCB, Δ Retro-cycloaddition (metal) C 60
−e a R 1 = R 2 = H
b R 1 = H; R 2 = Ph
c R 1 = H; R 2 = C
16 H 11 d R 1 = R 2 = CH
3 e R 1 = H; R 2 = COOEt
Scheme 34.6 Retro-cycloaddition reaction of pyrrolidino[3,4:1,2][60]fullerenes (16a–e). N Et
2 R 1 Fullerene Fullerene Fullerene = C 70 , Sc 3 N@C
80 Dipolarophile, o -DCB, Δ Retro-cycloaddition (metal) Scheme 34.7 Retro-cycloaddition reaction of higher and endohedral pyrrolidinofullerenes. ASYMMETRIC CATALYSIS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY 465 N Me Et 17 o -DCB N O O N N Me COOEt
O O
(NPM) +
60 Scheme 34.8 Trapping experiment using NPM as dipolarophile. 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of the in situ generated azomethyne ylide to the NPM was obtained in 19% yield as an endo/exo mixture 66 : 33 (Scheme 34.8). However, it remains unclear whether the metal acts only as a Lewis acid activating the lowest occupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the dipolarophile or whether it also triggers the azomethine ylide formation by complexation to the pyrrolidine [43]. This protocol of retro-cycloaddition reaction of azomethine ylides has proved to be so versatile that it can also be applied for the retro-functionalization of carbon nanotubes. Thus, a solution of functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes was heated to 150 ◦ C in o-DCB for 48 h, with copper triflate as catalyst, in an excess of C 60 in order to trap the resulting ylide. As a result, pristine nanotubes were separated from the residue by filtration, and in the filtrate the presence of fullerene monoadduct was proven by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [44]. Other fullerene derivatives prepared by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction have undergone the same thermal treatment in the presence of an excess of a dienophile and Cu(II) catalysis. Isoxazolino[4.5:1.2][60] and [70]fullerenes underwent an efficient retro-cycloaddition reaction to pristine fullerene [45]. Pyrazolino[60]fullerenes proved to be more stable under these conditions with respect of the previously described fullerene derivatives prepared by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction. While C-aryl-N-aryl-2-pyrazolino[60]fullerenes do not undergo an efficient retro-cycloaddition process under a variety of experimental conditions, alkyl-substituted carbon atom of the pyrazole ring undergoes a partial cleavage of the 1,3-dipole, leading to pristine C 60 in good yields (72%) [46]. 34.4 ASYMMETRIC CATALYSIS IN FULLERENE CHEMISTRY Only one year after fullerenes C 60 and C
70 became available in multigram amounts, the first chiral carbon cage C 76 -D 2 was
chromatographically isolated from fullerene soot extract [47]. Since then, a large number of chiral fullerene derivatives have been obtained [48] and classified on the base of their chirality as follows: 1. Derivatives of achiral parent fullerenes in which the derivatization creates a chiral functionalization pattern on the fullerene skeleton irrespective of the addends being identical or different—they have an inherently chiral functionalization pattern; 2. Derivatives of achiral parent fullerenes in which a chiral functionalization pattern is due, exclusively, to nonidentities among addends— they have a noninherently chiral functionalization pattern; 3. Derivatives of achiral parent fullerenes in which the addition of chiral residues does not create a chiral addition pattern on the fullerene surface—they have their chiral elements located exclusively in the addends [49]. Also, chiral fullerene derivatives have found use in biological applications [50] and in polymer science as helicity inducers [51]. Recently, fullerene chirality has demonstrated to be critical in generating a supramolecular architecture of donor–acceptor dyads (based in a chiral pyrrolidino[60]fullerene) giving rise to photoconductive nanofibers displaying very high ambipolar charge-carrier mobility ( ∼10
– 1 cm 2 /(V s)), which was higher than that obtained from racemic dyads in spherical assembly [52]. However, while the importance of chiral derivatives is increasing (especially in the field of organic electronics, where fullerenes present the more promising applications), the preparation of pure enantiomers has been based on the HPLC race- mate resolution or on the use of chiral starting materials. The noncoordinating character of fullerene double bonds has indeed hampered the use of most part of the available chiral methodologies based on the activation of electron-deficient olefins. |
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