Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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- 16.3.1 Inorganic Gold Catalysts
- 16.3.2 Families of Gold(I) and Gold(III) Complexes as Catalysts
- Scheme 16.10
- 16.3.3 Chiral Gold Catalysts
Scheme 16.2 Birth of gold catalysis. ELECTROPHILIC GOLD SPECIES: PRINCIPLE AND MAIN MODES OF REACTIVITY 209 CH 2 Cl 2 , 20 °C 80%
[(Ph 3 PAu) 3 O]BF
4 O MeO 2 C HO O O OBn CO 2 Me OH H O O OPMB
OBn MeO
O MeO
2 C HO O OBn
CO 2 Me OH H O O O OPMB OBn MeO
O MeO
2 C HO HO O OH CO 2 Me O H O O O O HO Azadirachtin Steps
Total synthesis of Azadirachtin by Ley et al. The aim of this chapter is not to summarize all the work that has been carried out up to date. Since the field has been largely and continuously reviewed [8], the following sections will preferentially highlight representative aspects of homogeneous gold catalysis that would allow the reader to have a brief overview of its synthetic potential.
The greatest part of the chemistry that has been developed so far in the so-called field of modern gold catalysis is based on the Lewis acid properties of a wide variety of gold(I) and gold(III) species. The pronounced Lewis acidic character of these species originates from the relativistic effects, which are particularly significant in the case of heavy elements such as gold. The lowest unoccupied molecular orbital is indeed relatively low owing to the relativistic contraction of the 6s orbital of gold. From a reactivity point of view, gold(I) and gold(III) species have the aptitude to selectively activate multiple carbon– carbon bonds such alkynes, allenes, or alkenes (Scheme 16.4, step 1) toward their functionalization by addition of a large variety of nucleophiles comprising oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or even sulfur species (Scheme 16.4, step 2). The addition step generally operates in an anti manner with respect to the activation of the unsaturation by the gold catalyst. It should also be noted that gold(III) species can be less selective than gold(I) ones as the latter are also able to competitively activate carbonyl derivatives such as ketones or aldehydes. The intermediate aurate species 1–3 can then evolve following different pathways. These can sometimes be extremely complex as cascade reactions, intermolecular trapping, coupling reactions, etc. can occur on the path to the final functionalized products. The simplest mechanistic scenario is found when the nucleophile (Nu) bears a hydrogen atom (Scheme 16.5). The catalytic cycle is terminated in this case by a formal gold to hydrogen exchange (so-called protodeauration sequence) that finally leads to products of hydrofunctionalization. This pathway is exemplified by the gold-catalyzed reaction of alkynes and allenes with water leading respectively to ketones and alcohols. [Au]
[Au] [Au]
[Au] Nu [Au] Nu [Au]
Nu [Au]
[Au(I) or Au(III)] [C, O, N, S nucleophile] Nucleophilic addition Electrophilic activation Nu Step1 Step2 1 2 3 Functionalized products
210 ORGANOGOLD CATALYSIS: HOMOGENEOUS GOLD-CATALYZED TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A GOLDEN JUBILEE [Au] Nu
Nu [Au]
Nu 1 2 3 H H H − H [Au] Nu [Au] Nu [Au]
Nu + H − [Au] H Nu H Nu H Nu Protodeauration sequence Hydrofunctionalized products
NuH = H 2 O [Au] H 2 O H OH H OH H O H Scheme 16.5 (See insert for color representation of the figure.) It is important to point out that the reactivity of gold catalysts is not limited to their Lewis acid properties. Complementary to some other electrophilic metallic species that can also activate π-systems toward nucleophilic functionalization, gold has also the capacity to act as an electron donor and help stabilize the cationic intermediates. This singular behavior is an indirect consequence of the relativistic effects [8z]. Since the 6s orbital is contracted, the electrons of the 5d orbital are weakly attracted by the nucleus (due to a shielding effect) and can therefore delocalize. As a result, aurate intermediates of type 4 or 5, which result from the nucleophilic functionalization of an alkyne or an allene respectively, can undergo an electrophilic trapping at the carbon β to gold to furnish the new “gold carbene” intermediates 6 and 7 (Scheme 16.6, Eqs. 1 and 2). It should however be noted that the terminology “gold carbene” only accounts for the possibility for gold to act as an electron donor stabilizing a carbocationic form and does not imply that intermediates 6 and 7 should have a carbene reactivity. Structures 6 and 6 (7 and 7 ) should be seen as extreme mesomeric forms of the same intermediate [9]. The carbene versus carbocationic reactivity is dependent on various parameters, among which are the substrate substitution pattern, the nature of the catalyst and its potential ligand, the nature of the carbene-trapping agent, and the nature of the solvent [10]. The capacity for gold to release some electron density has also been highlighted in a series of transformations involving the use of nucleophiles possessing a leaving group (LG) (Scheme 16.6, Eq. 3). In this case, gold carbenes of type 8 have been proposed as intermediates. [Au]
Nu [Au]
Nu E [Au] Nu β [Au] Nu [Au]
Nu β E E Electrophilic trapping
[Au]
Nu [Au]
Nu E E Carbene reactivity Carbocationic reactivity Products Products
6 ′ 7 ′ Carbene
mesomeric form Carbocationic mesomeric form [Eq 1]
[Eq 2] [Au]
Nu [Au]
Nu LG LG − LG [Au] Nu [Au]
Nu [Eq 3]
8 8 ′ Scheme 16.6 (See insert for color representation of the figure.) GOLD CATALYSTS 211 [Eq 1]
TsN [(i Pr)Au]BF 4 (2 mol%)
Toluene 10–15
°C 82%
TsN TsN
AuL TsN
AuL Ph MeO 2 C MeO 2 C [(i Pr)Au]SbF 6 (5 mol%)
90% CH 2 Cl 2 , 20 °C Ph 2 S = O MeO
2 C MeO 2 C H Ph O H (2 equiv) MeO
2 C MeO 2 C H Ph LAu
[Eq 2] N 3 Ph [(dppm)Au 2 ](SbF
6 ) 2 (2.5 mol%) 80%
CH 2 Cl 2 , 35
°C N LAu Ph − N
2 NH Ph [Eq 3] N LAu Ph N 2 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Scheme 16.7 Examples of transformation taking advantage of the dual Lewis acid/electron donor properties of gold. A series of representative synthetic transformations taking advantage of this dual Lewis acid/electron donor properties of gold are presented in Scheme 16.7 (further examples are presented in the following sections). In the first example, reported by the group of Chung [11], one of the unsaturations of the 1,4-cyclohexadiene moiety serves as the nucleophile to produce, in the presence of a gold(I) catalyst, an intermediate homoallylic carbocation 9. This latter is stabilized by electron donation from gold as the gold carbene mesomeric form 10, which is then trapped by the second endocyclic alkene to finally produce the structurally complex polycyclic compound 11. As seen in the second example, the same kind of gold carbene intermediate 12 could be trapped in an intermolecular manner by a sulfoxide to generate the cyclopropylcarboxaldehyde derivative 13 [12]. The last example, reported by the group of Toste [13], involves the use of an azide as the nucleophiles, which, after addition to the gold-activated alkyne and extrusion of dinitrogen (favored by electron donation from gold), affords an intermediate α-imino gold carbene 14. A sequence of ring expansion and tautomerization produces the bicyclic pyrrole 15. 16.3 GOLD CATALYSTS A great variety of catalytic systems have proven to be efficient in gold catalysis, even if none can be considered as completely general. The choice of the catalytic system indeed strongly depends on the synthetic transformation that has to be performed. The nature of the catalytic systems can vary according to different criteria: (i) the oxidation level of the metal (Au(I), Au(III)), (ii) the presence of ligands and their nature, and (iii) the nature of the counteranion. A distinction can also be made regarding the way the catalytically active species is introduced or generated in the reaction medium. It should also be pointed out that gold catalysts possess a series of interesting properties that render them easy to use and handle: they are generally insensitive to oxygen (and are, by the way, difficult to oxidize) and are compatible with the use of aqueous or alcoholic media. They are also considered to be nontoxic, especially when compared to other π-Lewis
acidic species, such as mercury salts, which can be used to accomplish similar transformations. The main catalytic systems used in gold catalysis are presented in the following sections. 16.3.1 Inorganic Gold Catalysts Several simple inorganic salts (Scheme 16.8) have been reported as efficient catalysts in a series of synthetic transformations. They are however less commonly used than gold complexes (see Section 16.3.2) and gold(III) salts are more generally
212 ORGANOGOLD CATALYSIS: HOMOGENEOUS GOLD-CATALYZED TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A GOLDEN JUBILEE Gold(III) salts: AuCl
3 AuBr
3 HAuCl
4 NaAuCl
4 KAuCl
4 Gold(I) salts: AuCl AuI
Scheme 16.8 Examples of gold salts used as catalysts. employed than gold(I) salts. It should also be noted that these salts are poorly soluble in noncoordinating solvents and that the great majority are highly hygroscopic. They can also be employed, in the case of gold(III) halides, in combination with a silver salt, such as AgSbF 6 or AgOTf. 16.3.2 Families of Gold(I) and Gold(III) Complexes as Catalysts Gold complexes, and more especially gold(I) complexes, are by far the most employed catalytic systems. The presence of one or several ligands on the metal center can indeed help to modulate the reactivity of the catalysts (modulation of its Lewis acidic character and/or electron back donation) and optimize its properties for a given transformation [10]. Gold(III) complexes are relatively scarce and the most commonly employed possess a pyridine or a pyridine derivative as ligand, as in PyrAuCl 3
2
Gold(I) complexes are much more varied, and complexes of type L-Au-Cl 18, where L represents a ligand, are the most frequently employed (Scheme 16.10). They can be classified depending on the nature of this ligand L, which can be a phosphine, a phosphite, a phosphoramidite, or a carbene. Complexes of type 18 are precatalysts that are generally employed in combination with a silver salt such as AgOTf, AgBF 4
6 , and AgNTf 2 in order to generate in situ a more electrophilic gold species by anion exchange. Besides complexes of type L-Au-Cl 18, L-Au-OH 19, or L-Au-Me 20 can also be used as precatalysts. In this case, they are used in N Au Cl Cl Cl N Au Cl Cl O O PyrAuCl 3 PicAuCl 2 16 17 Scheme 16.9 Examples of gold(III) complexes used as catalysts. L Au
Phosphine Phosphoramidite Carbene P
2 R 1 R 3 L = Phosphite P OR 2 R 1 O OR 3 P OR 2 R 1 O N R 4 R 3 N N R 1 R 2 R 4 R 3 18 + AgX + AgCl L Au , X
X = OTf, BF 4 , SbF
6 , NTf
2 etc.
Gold(I) precatalyst Catalytically active gold(I) species L Au OH
19 L Au Me 20 HX + H 2 O L Au , X + CH 4 L Au N
21 Tf Tf L Au N 22 R, SbF
6 N Au PPh 3 N N R 23 X Triflimidate gold(I) complexes L = phosphine, phosphite, carbene Hexafluoroantimonate nitrile gold(I) complexes Benzotriazole gold(I) complexes Scheme 16.10 Gold(I) complexes. GOLD CATALYSTS 213 P Au Cl
R 3 R P R R Au Cl R = Et, t Bu R 2 R 2 R 3 P R 1 R 1 Au Cl R 1 = t Bu, R 2 = R 3 = H
R 1 = Cy, R 2 = R
3 = i Pr R 1
2 = OMe, R 3 = H
R 1 = Cy, R 2 = R
3 = H
P P Ph Au Ph Ph Ph Au Br Br R 2 R 2 R 3 P R 1 R 1 Au NCMe, SbF 6 Ph 3 P Au NCMe, SbF 6 Ph
P Au NTf 2 O P t Bu Au 3 Cl t Bu O P t Bu Au NCPh, SbF 6
R 1 = R 2 = Me, R 3 = H
R 1 = iPr, R 2 = R
3 = H
IMesAuCl IPrAuCl
N N Au Cl R 1 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 1 R 2 N N Au N R 1 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 1 R 2 Tf Tf R = H, Cl, CF 3 R
R 2 R 3 P R 1 R 1 Au NTf 2 N N Au N R 1 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 1 R 2 R 3 X R 1 = R 2 = Me
R 1 = i Pr, R 2 = H
IMesAuNTf 2 IPrAuNTf 2 R 1 = t Bu, R 2 = R 3 = i Pr R 1
2 = H, R
3 = Ph, X = SbF 6 R
= R 2 = Me, R 3 = 2,4,6-(MeO) 3 C
H 2 , X = SbF 6 3 Phosphine gold(I) complexes: NHC gold(I) complexes: Phosphite gold(I) complexes:
Examples of gold(I) complexes used as catalysts or precatalysts. combination with a strong Brønsted acid, such as triflic acid to generate the active species. Notably, three different classes of gold catalysts that do not necessitate the use of a cocatalyst (silver salt or Brønsted acid) and are air and moisture stable have been developed: the triflimidate gold(I) complexes 21, the hexafluoroantimonate nitrile gold(I) complexes 22, and the benzotriazole gold(I) complexes 23. A collection of various gold(I) complexes commonly used as precatalysts or catalysts are presented in Scheme 16.11 [15].
Compared to nonasymmetric gold catalysts (Section 16.3.2), chiral gold catalysts are relatively rare even if the last 5 years have seen a growing interest in their development and use [8f,n]. The asymmetric catalytic systems reported so far are nearly all based on the use of a gold(I) metallic center. Their relative scarcity should be linked to the preferential linear arrangement of gold(I) complexes that is not propitious to the transfer of stereochemical information from an asymmetric ligand to the reacting center (gold(I)-coordinated substrate) (see Section 16.9). A series of asymmetric precatalytic systems are presented in Scheme 16.12 [16]. Most dinuclear gold(I) complexes possess a Binap (24), a Biphep (25), or a Segphos (26) backbone. A few others are based on the use of a phosphoramidite ligand whose backbone is derived from Binol (27) or Taddol (28). Besides employing catalytic systems that possess a bulky asymmetric ligand to efficiently relay the chiral information, another strategy has been developed by the group of Toste in order to circumvent the problems linked to the linear arrangement of gold(I) complexes. In this alternative strategy, a chiral Binol-derived phosphonate (29), which can form a close ion pair with the gold–ligand complex, is employed as the counteranion. 214 ORGANOGOLD CATALYSIS: HOMOGENEOUS GOLD-CATALYZED TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A GOLDEN JUBILEE Binap derived gold(I) complexes: PAr
2 ·AuCl
PAr 2 ·AuCl Ar = t Bu t Bu OMe
MeO MeO
PAr 2 ·AuCl PAr 2 ·AuCl Biphep derived gold(I) complexes: Ar =
t Bu t Bu OMe
Segphos derived gold(I) complexes: PAr
2 ·AuCl
PAr 2 ·AuCl O O O O Ar =
t Bu t Bu OMe
Ar = phenyl, O O Ar Ar P N Ph Ph 1-naphthyl, 9-anthracenyl, 4-pyrenyl Au Cl
P O MeO MeO Ar Ar Ar Ar N Ph Ph Au Cl Modified Taddol gold(I) complex Phophoramidite gold(I) complex O O P O O Au L Trip-Au-L 24 25 26 27 28 29 Scheme 16.12 Examples of chiral precatalytic or catalytic systems. 16.4 GOLD-CATALYZED ACTIVATION OF MULTIPLE CARBON– CARBON BONDS: FUNCTIONALIZATION BY ADDITION OF OXYGEN, NITROGEN, SULFUR, OR CARBON NUCLEOPHILES A large array of nucleophiles has been used in electrophilic gold catalysis in order to functionalize π-systems such as alkynes, allenes, and alkenes. The following sections portray some typical synthetic transformations that are classified as a function of the nature of the nucleophile.
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