Conversion in English and its implications for Functional Discourse Grammar
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Conversion in English and its implicatio
D.G. Velasco / Lingua 119 (2009) 1164–1185
1178 11 See Hengeveld and Smit (2009) for an updated presentation of the FDG formalization of the representational level. Let us illustrate this proposal with an example. The lexical concept ‘open’ might be linked to the following pieces of information which could be assumed to be part of normal competence (no attempt is made at distinguishing linguistic from non-linguistic knowledge): (15) Open : a. Opening is an event. b. By opening somebody allows entrance of something. c. Tins, doors, etc. can be opened. d. People open doors to enter buildings. etc. The representation in (15) states the following: any competent speaker should ‘know’ that the item ‘open’ denotes an event (15a). I would assume, therefore, that lexemes are characterized in the lexicon by competent speakers as ‘event-denoting’, ‘thing-denoting’, ‘property-denoting’, etc., as a basic feature. 12 Secondly, speakers should have an intuition of the number of participants typically involved in the bringing about of the event (15b–c). Finally, speakers will have a variable number of specifications of pragmatic nature which may even relate to their own private experience. Assuming that (15a and b) are the minimum required to be competent in the use of this lexeme, speakers will have everything necessary for the selection of a predication frame. First, the fact that ‘open’ is characterized as an event will most naturally guide towards the selection of an eventive frame. The fact that participants will be coded as agents, patients or processed entities is represented in the grammar of the relevant languages through the inventory of frames and need not be included in (15). All that is needed is a representation of the action of ‘opening’ either in propositional format as in (15b) or in referential format (i.e. images, 3D representations, etc.). The system also allows new specifications from the conceptual component to enter the characterization of the item, including private ones, such as the fact that the door to my office is made of wood, or the post office next to my house has a revolving door, etc. Definitions are thus flexible, they can be adapted in context, and parts of them may be highlighted in a specific discourse act. In the case of verb conversion from proper nouns we simply have to assume that the conceptual specifications associated with the individual include the piece of knowledge required to interpret the expression felicitously (i.e. the fact that Houdini was an escape artist or the fact that Bogart used to keep cigarettes in his mouth without actually smoking them). Both the linguistic and extralinguistic context will guide the speaker toward the activation of the relevant specification. Further evidence in favour of this approach to conversion in English and to lexical semantics can be found in facts from typologically unrelated languages. Hengeveld (1992) offers a typology of parts of speech systems (see also Hengeveld et al., 2004 ) with which languages are classified on a scale from flexible to rigid according to the possibility of the vocabulary of the language to systematically perform some or all of the functions of lexemes in expressions. Languages with a D.G. Velasco / Lingua 119 (2009) 1164–1185 1179 12 An anonymous reviewer has pointed out to me that speakers also have intuitions as to the basic thing-denoting or event-denoting character of a multifunctional lexeme, which amounts in practice to having a preset idea about the lexeme’s syntactic category. Although these intuitions do exist, they may be affected by the degree of assimilation and the frequency of use of the item in predicative or referential function (see also Farrell, 2001 :fn. 123) and do not necessarily correspond to a noun or verb categorization. flexible PoS system use the same lexeme for several syntactic functions, whereas languages with a rigid system use a distinctive word class for each relevant function. In Hengeveld et al.’s (2004:530) classification, word classes in rigid systems are defined after their prototypical function in expressions: A VERB (V) is a lexeme that can be used as the head of a predicate phrase only; a NOUN (N) is a lexeme that can be used as the head of a referential phrase; an ADJECTIVE (A) is a lexeme that can be used as a modifier within a referential phrase; By separating lexemes from the frames in which they occur, the lexemes of languages with a flexible PoS system can be inserted in the relevant frame and are not listed in the lexicon as many times as they have syntactic functions. 13 As frames are provided for the prototypical functions of word classes, as in the following examples (‘^’ indicates the position where a lexeme is to be inserted), flexible lexemes need not be given a category label: (16) a. Prototypical function of verbal lexemes a. (e 1 : (f 1 : ^ (f 1 )) (e 1 )) Predication b. Prototypical function of nominal lexemes b. (x 1 : (f 1 : ^ (f 1 )) (x 1 )) Term c. Prototypical function of adjectival lexemes c. (x 1 : (f 1 : – (f 1 )) (x 1 ): (f 1 : ^ (f 1 )) (x 1 )) Term Modifier One such language showing the highest degree of flexibility is Mundari. 14 For example, the lexeme buru, discussed in Garcı´a Velasco and Hengeveld (2002) , acquires the following meanings by virtue of being used in predicative and referential functions: (17) buru (i) mountain; (ii) to heap up; (iii) to keep up certain feasts or to hold a fair (because they take place on mountains); (iv) to call something a mountain. As this seems to be a systematic property of the language it does seem adequate for Mundari to separate syntactic functions (i.e. frames) from the lexeme itself rather than listing several predicate frames for each item. Thus, in the construction of a given linguistic expression, the lexeme would select for a specific frame depending on the function it performs in a given linguistic expression. English, by contrast is classified by Hengeveld et al. (2004:538) as a rigid language because the cases of conversion discussed in this paper are not systematic (see also Lieber, 2004 :95): Download 202.86 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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