Conversion in English and its implications for Functional Discourse Grammar
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Conversion in English and its implicatio
D.G. Velasco / Lingua 119 (2009) 1164–1185
1173 beliefs for communication to take place. My personal interpretation of the notion converge is a dynamic one. Speakers may adapt their own beliefs dynamically on the basis of the contextual information available, and thus modify their previous ideas on concepts. To use Allwood’s terminology, convergence could be understood as the speaker and hearer’s coincidence as to which part of the lexeme’s meaning potential should be activated. Thus meaning is not conveyed only, but constructed cooperatively ( Evans, 2006 ). But this does not mean that two speakers possess exactly the same concept a priori. And from this, it also follows that there are no beliefs that are necessarily shared by all competent users. 7 Interestingly, Clark and Clark (1979) offer an analysis of noun-to-verb conversion in English which fits nicely within this view of lexical semantics. As mentioned earlier, they defend the idea that conversion (in their case noun to verb conversion) rests on the speakers’ ability to create and understand innovative expressions. Clark and Clark (1979) and Clark and Gerrig (1983) make a crucial distinction between ‘sense selection’ and ‘sense creation’. Sense selection merely involves choosing the right sense of a lexeme in a given context from the set of possible conventional senses the lexeme has. As mentioned earlier, most models of lexical meaning assume that lexical items are listed in the lexicon together with definitions based on conventional fixed meanings. They thus have no problems in dealing with sense selection. However, although modulation of senses might be argued to result from adaptations in context of conventional senses, there are cases of expressions whose meaning cannot be assumed to be part of the speakers’ lexical stock. Expressions whose meaning has to be created and cannot be just selected are called ‘contextuals’. They have the following properties which distinguish them from conventional expressions ( Clark and Clark, 1979 :782): Number of senses: unlike conventional units, contextuals have an indefinite number of potential senses. Dependence on context: as contextuals have a shifting sense and reference, their interpretation depends on the context in which they appear. Cooperation between speaker and addressee: as contextuals have an indefinite number of potential senses, arriving at the intended interpretation requires cooperation between speaker and addressee. Clark and Gerrig (1983) consider different types of contextuals, but the most interesting case in the present context is that of eponyms used in verbal function. Consider the following example ( Clark and Clark, 1979 :784) 8 : (11) My sister Houdini’d her way out of the locked closet As the authors observe, the use of proper nouns in verbal slots raises a very interesting question. Semantic theories assume that proper nouns do not have sense or meaning, but only reference. If that were the case it would seem impossible for a speaker to find out the meaning of D.G. Velasco / Lingua 119 (2009) 1164–1185 1174 7 An anonymous reviewer has pointed out to me that even if speakers are not fully competent lexically, they must be at least partly competent and it is this partial competence that needs to be defined in a model of lexical semantics. This is undoubtedly true, but the crucial question is that the characterization of that partial competence cannot be made on the basis of a model of lexical semantics based on static definitions for the reasons discussed in this section. 8 It should be noted that Clark and Clark’s corpus contains more than 1300 attested examples of verbal conversion, including many more examples of conversions based on proper nouns. the verbal form Houdini’d in (11) as that does not exist in his/her mental lexicon. Clark and Clark argue that the verb to Houdini is a contextual expression as its interpretation depends on the context and on the cooperation of the speaker and listener. In particular, when uttering (11) the speaker assumes that his/her interlocutor knows that Houdini was an escape artist and can thus arrive at the intended sense. As Clark and Gerrig (1983:606) argue, we cannot assume that the speaker and addressee share exactly the same beliefs about Houdini: rather, they have to decide on the spot which ones are shared by both of them and arrive at the right interpretation. Of course, not all conversions to verbs are based on proper nouns. This is only understandable, as the interpretation of these verbs would seem to depend on very specific knowledge about historical facts and figures. As this encyclopedic knowledge may vary enormously across speakers, the most common denominal verbs are created on the basis of general knowledge about concrete objects. But, given the fact that the encyclopedic knowledge we associate with concepts may be unlimited and (to some extent) restricted to one’s private experience, how can we arrive at the right interpretation when confronted with a novel converted verb? The answer is in clear accordance with our previous discussion on the semantics of lexical items: ‘properties ( . . .) do not carry equal weight; some are more central to the characterization of the category than others’ ( Clark and Clark, 1979 :789). The expectation is, then, that novel creations should be processed in terms of the predominant features associated with the input noun. I believe it is instructive at this stage to compare this analysis with the one proposed by Farrell (2001) . Within the framework of Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar, Farrell argues that noun/verb conversion can be analysed in terms of an alternative profiling of the same event image schema. He illustrates the process with the items kiss and bag. ‘Kiss’ is represented as a force–dynamic interaction between two participants ( Farrell, 2001 :114); the verbal use of the item profiles the interaction among the participants, whereas the nominal use results from the profiling of the whole event schema as a unitary process. Significantly, as the event schema is not specified as a process or thing unit, the insertion of the item in a nominal or verbal slot will serve to trigger the appropriate profiling. Farrell’s analysis, however, does not seem so elegant for thing-denoting items. In the case of ‘bag’, the author proposes a similar analysis based on an event schema (also involving a force– dynamic interaction) from which the nominal and verbal uses are profiled. Unlike the case of ‘kiss’, the noun construal does not profile the event as a unitary process, but concentrates on the goal of the action, whereas the event use profiles the interaction among the event participants. Although I fully agree that the uses or functions of a given thing are prominent encyclopaedic information we associate with lexical items, I consider it counterintuitive that the basic semantic characterization of thing-denoting items may be represented through event schemas based on the prototypical function (in the real world) of the entity at issue. In my view, it seems much more adequate to assume that pieces of encyclopaedic information (and certainly the functions of things in the world are important ones) may be activated to interpret the verbal/nominal use of lexemes. Thus, roughly, the meaning of ‘bag’ would include not only necessary and sufficient features (i.e. ‘a container made of flexible material’), but also encyclopaedic prominent features such as the fact that bags are prototypically used to store or carry items. The use of ‘bag’ in a verbal slot will guide the speaker to the ‘function’ interpretation. Farrell (2001) is well aware of this problem and believes that given the prominence of the concept ‘bag’ as the goal of the event schema, its profiling as a noun is more expected than the profiling of the process ‘bagging’ as a noun. This, in turn, is responsible for the intuition that bag is basically a noun and not a verb. Download 202.86 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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