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- 312 Seydimbek, Akseleu. Mir Kazakhov. Etnokul’tum oe pereosmyslenie (The World o f the Kazakhs. Ethnocultural Rethingking). Almaty: RAUAN, 2001, p. 13.
- National Ideology and Native Intellectuals
- 313 National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe. Edited by Katherine Verdery
- 317 Ibid., p. 106. 318 Op.cit. 319 Tishkov, Valery. Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict In and After the Soviet Union: The Mind Aflame.
- 321 Ibid., 12. 322 Ibid., p. 13. 323 Harrell, Stevan and Yongxiang, L i , “The History o f the History o f the Y i,” Part II. In: Modern China
- 325 Han, Almaz, X., pp. 20-31.
- 326 Ibid., pp. 97-98. 327 Ibid., p. 383. 328 Written comments of Prof. Ilse Cirtautas, University o f Washington, January, 2007.
- The Ancient Turkic Worldview of Tengirchilik (Tengrianity)
- 329 “Tengrianity is the Worldview of the Altaic People,” (Collections of Papers in Russian and English
310 311 Ibid., p. 8. Op.cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 4 and thinker, Akseleu Seydimbek notes: “It is bad if others don’t understand you (and your culture), but it is a tragedy if you don’t understand yourself.”312 As in many post-colonial nation states, after the collapse of the Soviet union, Kyrgyz historians and writers began the project of rewriting history, by searching for historical facts and unique socio-cultural values and traditions which would legitimize the Kyrgyz people’s existence as an ancient as well as a modem independent state. Askar Akaev, the first president of the independent Kyrgyz republic, headed the country from 1991-2005. During his presidency, Akaev promoted the national ideology under the slogan “Kyrgyzstan is Our Common Home,” taking into consideration the diverse ethnic composition of the country. He used the epic Manas as the basis for a national ideology by extracting seven testaments Manasfin jeti osuyat'i from Manas for Kyrgyzstan’s citizenship. Akayev’s ideology seemed to work only on the official level. Shortly before his overthrow in March 2005, Akayev published a book titled Kyrgyz Statehood and the National Epic Manas.1 But, due to its price and limited print run, it failed to reach a wide audience. No one read the book besides a handful of historians and politicians. The world of the epic Manas is very rich. Since the adoption of Islam, singers incorporated many Islamic beliefs and practices into the existing native religious worldview. And that ancient worldview is not only found in oral tradition only, but in the everyday life relationships of Kyrgyz people. While one group of intellectuals, local Muslim clergy, young and middle aged Kyrgyz men, who went to study in Egypt and Saudi Arabia, propose the religion of Islam as an answer for personal and economic prosperity (see Chapter 4), the secular minded intellectuals, who also consider themselves
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 295 Muslim, search for their ancient roots, for something that offers more than a religious “dogma.” Kazakh and Kyrgyz intellectuals believe that it is their centuries of nomadic life and culture which preserved the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz and their identities for thousands of years, and it is that cultural heritage, not the nomadic lifestyle itself, which will save them in the future. It is argued that most of the traditional customs and spiritual values stemming from their nomadic worldview continue to play an important role in cotemporary Kyrgyz/Kazakh lives. They called that ancient worldview Tengirchilik (“Tengrianstvo” in Russian) and it is considered to be the native worldview of all the Altaic peoples of Central Asia. Tengirchilik has not lost its relevance even today, they argue, therefore has to be raised to a national level and announced officially as a national ideology.
The emergence of national ideology usually takes place during major historical and political times of transformation. Tengirchilik is an example of the kinds of national ideology that is emerging in the post-Soviet, post-Cold War world. Benedict Anderson, Ernest Gellner, and Eric Hobsbaum have written theoretical works on the concept of nation and nationalism. Among these well-known western scholars, Anthony D. Smith’s presents a relevant theory to the growth of nationalism. He suggests that “first nations” in a given region emerged around a centralized state, which contained an easily identifiable dominant “ethnie.” The minor “ethnies had to conform to the dominant ‘ethnie’ that had a name, a myth of descent, a shared history, a distinctive Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29 6 culture, a homeland and a sense of solidarity. In case the “ethnie” did not possess these characteristics, it had to “rediscover” and articulate them in order to legitimize the existence of a nation. National elites and intellectuals of all backgrounds have always played a key role in nation building processes in many countries, as, e.g. Mongolia, Eastern Europe and the minority regions of China. The formation of Eastern European countries as nation states after WWI and WWII serves as one of the best examples. Scholars like Katherine Verdery characterize the local intellectuals’ view of national identity as “collectivist,” imagining the existence of a unified or homogeneous group of peoples or ethnic groups in i n each country. Polish intellectuals played a key role in creating Polish national culture by reviving nationalist sentiments and feelings about Poland’s language and tragic history. “Culture” served as the medium of Polish national awakening and the feeling of belonging to a common homeland.314 In a similar way, in 1918 the Czechs, who are now independent from Soviet domination, searched for their “origins” as a way to show their distinctiveness or “originality” from others.315 The case of Hungary did not differ much from the rest of the region. Folk culture and the nomadic background served as the main source for Hungarian national ideology, identity and symbols. Romanian politicians and intellectuals believed in the existence of the Romanian nation as a “collective individual” and tried to institutionalize national ideology.316 313 National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe. Edited by Katherine Verdery and Ivo Banac, New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1995. 314 Ibid., pp. 2-3. 315 Ibid., pp. 48-49. 316 Ibid., p. 104. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 7 In analyzing the role and motivations of intellectuals in general, Verdery makes a good point. She does not view the people’s, mainly intellectuals’ choice of certain values and preferences, and the standards of their scholarly work, as a political will to gain 017 power.
She believes that these genuine attachments of intellectuals to their people’s traditional values are created “in opposition to specific others, because values and preferences, and standards are multiple. And because of this diversity in values and standards, their genuine goal will be forced to compete with other standards. Their concerns and activities may look like a political struggle, but at the same time, they bring “alternative” values into the “competitive relation.”318 Some Russian/Soviet scholars such as Valerii Tishkov, director of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, have been very critical of the nation building process, which took place in the non-Russian successor states after the Soviet collapse. Tishkov is the editor of the recent book Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict In and After the Soviet Union?19 In his own article, he argues that the Soviet discipline of studying ethnicity or national identity was trapped between politics and the theory of primordialism, which sees ethnicity as an objective “given.”320 He identifies two approaches in the study of ethnicity. He asserts that non-Russian national intellectuals and elites use ethnicity to gain social acclaim and political power in their societies. He characterizes this approach as “instrumentalist.” He calls the second approach “constructivist,” where ethnicity is chosen by an individual or a group to satisfy
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 298 their personal socio-cultural needs and to achieve certain goals.321 In this case, the intellectuals do not necessarily play a “manipulative role” in the process of their identity formation. Tishkov is very critical of those non-Russian intellectuals and scholars who, instead of writing “solid and academic” monographs, concern themselves with political activities by circulating pamphlets and brochures.322 He, however, tends to see these developments from his Russian/Soviet point of view. He does not seem to understand that it is quite natural for the local intellectuals of smaller nations within and outside of Russia, especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, to genuinely feel obligated to promote and preserve their native language and traditional culture. Such processes are not unique to Central Asian intellectuals. In the early 1980s, very similar approach to national identity was developed among the intellectuals of minority peoples of China such as the Yi. During these years, a new generation of Yi scholars began rewriting their history in “revisionist terms” as a way of protesting against the old forms of scholarship, influenced by Han-centrism.323 Pride in Yi culture, language, and ethnic identity flourished during the “economic and policy reforms” that took place in China in the 1980s. Yi scholars claim that everything, which has been believed to be Chinese, such as the “calendar, writing, Daoism, and the yin-yang '1 ‘J A cosmology” in fact belongs to the Yi.” As Harrell and Li state correctly, it is more important to understand why they do what they do rather than trying to verify the validity of their writing. During the Soviet period, like the Yi scholars in China, non-Russian
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 9 scholars could not write about their history and culture independently. Everything had to be written in the “Marxist-Leninist paradigm” and go through state censorship before being published. Expression of their national and ethnic identities and pride in their own native cultures was very limited among the non-Russian and non-Han peoples of both multinational empires. Almaz Han, who studied Mongol nationality issues, notes that the intellectuals or elites of various minority groups, including the Inner Mongols, themselves actively participate in the official process of minzufication, from minzu, minority group.325 He applies the theory of “subaltemity” which suggests the idea that the national elites mediate between their own people, the “oppressed,” and the state “oppressor.” The longing of the Inner Mongols for the “ideal or imagined homeland,” Outer Mongolia, is interpreted as a diaspora relationship, which according to the author, can be both real and imagined. Strong nationalist sentiments usually arise when the minority groups’ existence is threatened by the titular nation-state. In the case of Inner Mongolia, the persecution of the members of the New Inner Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party was a wakeup call to the Inner Mongols. That generation, to which Almaz Han himself belongs, played a key role in the revival of ethnic movements during thel980’s. They spread “nationalist” ideas about Mongol culture and language. Even those Mongols who were basically no different from Chinese farmers and had no knowledge of Mongolian, started to run Mongol language schools. More and more Mongols began to appreciate their traditional dress and wore it as a marker of their national identity. The traditional diet of lamb and dairy foods as well as their material
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 0 culture such as clothing, horse, and yurt and most importantly, Chingiz Khan, became the symbol of their national identity and unity.326 The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and “the collapse of the central state legitimacy after 1989” in China gave local intellectuals and scholars freedom to express their pride and respect for their culture and identity.327 It is difficult to expect “solid academic” writings free of any nationalistic sentiments from intellectuals of the post colonial period. It will take time for the old psychological wounds of colonial experience to heal. This kind of nationalistic approach to identity among the smaller nations or minority groups did not and does not grow in isolation. According to some scholars of 328 Central Asia such as Ilse Cirtautas, “it is an act of survival, revival and self-defense.” The Central Asian intellectuals also use a “collectivist” approach when speaking of their people’s national identities. However, it is easy to underestimate or dismiss their ideas as being irrelevant or false. Yes, some intellectuals may not have a scholarly basis for their assertions, their theories and their methodologies may not conform to the standards of world/western scholarship. We, the scholars with academic training need to give a space for “semi-scholars” like writers and intellectuals for they bring forth alternative approaches, valuable thoughts and new ideas from which we can learn. Besides, these intellectuals, writers in particular have more influence in Central Asia than scholars, who tend to use a specialized scholarly language and detailed analysis that are not easily comprehended by ordinary people. 326 Ibid., pp. 97-98. 327 Ibid., p. 383. 328 Written comments of Prof. Ilse Cirtautas, University o f Washington, January, 2007. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 301 Therefore, it is more appropriate to treat the writings of such “semi-scholars” not as academic scholarship to be criticized and evaluated, but as phenomena to be explained. In the rest of this chapter, I will first discuss some of the main ideas of Tengirchilik explained by Choyun Omuraliev, who, in 1994, published a very interesting book titled
Choyun Omuraliev and Dastan Sarigulov about Kyrgyz national identity, nomadic heritage, and the idea of Tengirchilik as they were recorded. The main point here is what they think and how they use Tengirchilik, not whether it is accurate. In other words, it does not matter how we, the scholars and readers in general, understand Kyrgyz nomadic heritage and Tengirchilik, but rather how Kyrgyz intellectuals like Dastan Sarigulov portray and interpret these concepts and how Choyun Omuraliev understands Daoism and how he uses it in building his Tengirchilik philosophy. My task would be to provide commentary about some interesting concepts and values in Kyrgyz nomadic culture that require additional explanation or background context. The Ancient Turkic Worldview of Tengirchilik (Tengrianity) In November of 2003, during a stay in Bishkek, I was invited to attend the first international scholarly conference on Tengirchilik, which was organized by the “Tengir- Ordo Foundation for the Preservation and Development of [the Kyrgyz] National Heritage,” founded by Dastan Sarigulov. Before this conference took place, I had already read all of Dastan Sangulov’s small booklets and articles on Tengirchilik and Kyrgyz/Central Asia nomadic culture. So, Tengirchilik was not a new idea to me, for I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 302 myself had been very much interested in learning about the pre-Islamic religious history of the Central Asian nomadic Turks, including the Kyrgyz. The participants in the conference were mostly Kazakh and Kyrgyz intellectuals, historians, scholars, poets, and journalists. It was not a public conference, but rather an opportunity for intellectuals to share their thoughts and ideas about Tengirchilik. There were two scholars, Turkologists, from abroad: Takashi Osawa from Japan, and Wolfgang Scharlipp from Germany. I translated the German scholar’s presentation from English into Kyrgyz. The working languages at this two-day conference were Kyrgyz, English, and Russian. Dastan Sarigulov opened the conference with his paper titled “Tengrianity and the Global Problems of Modernity.” The other papers presented at the conference addressed the following issues relating to Tengirchilik: “The Metaphysics of Tengrianity,” “Tengrianity: Religion or Philosophy,” “Aspects of the Cult and Culture of Tengri According to the Ancient Turkic Inscriptions of the Yenisei Basin,” “Essentials of Tengrianstvo and the Spectrum of its Spread;” “Tengrianstvo (Tengrianity)—Mirror of the Nomadic World;” “Origins of Tengrianity;” and “Islam and Tengrianity.”329 One of the main arguments of the presenters was that the Inner Asian religious system of beliefs should not be characterized as “shamanism” which only shows one side of a larger picture. In their opinion, “shamanism,” which has become a well-established term in world scholarship, is misleading when used to describe the nature of the religious worldview of the Turkic peoples. They asserted that their ancient worldview should be called Tengirchilik (from the ancient Turkic word: tangri, which means both “Sky” and 329 “Tengrianity is the Worldview of the Altaic People,” (Collections of Papers in Russian and English Languages), The First Internation Scientific (Scholarly) Conference. Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic, November 10-13, 2003. Bishkek: “Tengir Ordo” Foundation, 2003. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 303 “God”)- It is said that Tengirchilik is rather a broad philosophical concept, which goes beyond “shamanic” beliefs and practices. It is argued that the worldview of Tengirchilik offers more valuable and sophisticated ideas about life, nature, and human relationships than orthodox Islam or Christianity. In 1994 Choyun Omuraliev published an exceptional book titled Tengirchilik (Tengrianity, 288 pages). Written in an artistic style, the book contains substantial and important material about Tengirchilik. I personally find the book extremely interesting and enlightening in terms of the new materials, sources, and approaches provided by the author. If translated into western languages and particularly into Chinese, the book would definitely be a valuable contribution to Daoist scholarship and thus create interesting discussions among the scholars of Daoism. Omuraliev begins his book by searching for a “philosophy” or “idea” which would “preserve the essence and the unique face of the [Kyrgyz] nation.”330 The author finds that philosophy which he describes as “the longest, greatest and most arduous -J O 1
endless WAY (JOL)?” This WAY, which he calls Tengirchilik, is a three-dimensional system of relationships between Kok (Sky), Jer (Earth), and Kishi (Man), who stands between first the two. Therefore, the term “shamanism” is incomplete, for the shaman, ' I l ' J who is also a Man, constitutes only one part of the three-dimensional relationship. This
ancient diiyndtaanim, worldview of Tengirchilik, instead of surviving as a separate religious dogma, has deeply integrated into the everyday life of the Kyrgyz (and Kazakhs), who, until today, very much value many of its ideas and apply them into their 330
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