Creativity, Playfulness and Linguistic Carnivalization in James Joyce’s
Grammatical metaphors: Lexical creativity with an experiential function
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Creativity Playfulness and Linguistic Ca 4
Grammatical metaphors: Lexical creativity with an experiential function
Grammatical metaphor is a concept which originates in the work of Halliday, 20 and refers to a process in which grammatical categories are reframed in unusual ways in order to reconceptualize the argument structure of a clause: [T]he grammatical clauses of the language we speak structure how we understand, experience and act on our material, social and mental worlds. And just as there are levels of conventionality in our use of vocabulary, [. . .] so there are usual or conventional clause patterns for conceptualising and constructing events, and rather less typical clause patterns, known variously as ‘marked clause structure’ or ‘grammatical metaphor’. 21 For example, the unmarked way to refer to people, places and things is by using a noun, the typical way to refer to an action is with a verb; to express a characteristic or a quality, one normally uses an adjective, and so on. An atypical (or marked) way to refer to an action would be to use a noun, e.g. the action of ‘writing’ in Cuthbert wrote a letter to the authorities, which surprised us, can be expressed as a noun in Cuthbert’s writing of a letter to the authorities surprised us, thus converting the action of ‘writing’ from a process into an entity and simultaneously changing its grammatical function from predicator to (the head of) the subject of the verb surprise. Nominalizations are very common forms of grammatical metaphor 22 since nouns, in contrast to other word classes, can be used in a greater variety of participant roles (agent, experiencer, force, affected, recipient, etc.) and in a wider range of functions in the clause structure (as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, complements, etc.). However, the most interesting examples in Ulysses are not nominalizations, as exemplified in (11): 11) a. Wait. Open hallway. Street of harlots. Remember. Haroun al Raschid. I am almosting it. b. […] if anyone asked could he ride the steeplechase for the gold cup hed say yes then it came on to get rough the old thing crookeding about and the weight all down my side telling me pull the right reins now […] c. [Virag] is sausaged into several overcoats. d. Brightly the keys, all twinkling, linked, all harpsichording [...] e. Puck Mulligan, panamahelmeted, went step by step, iambing, trolling […] f. He rooted in the sand, dabbling, delving and stopped to listen to the air, scraped up the sand again with a fury of his claws, soon ceasing, a pard, a panther, got in spousebreach, vulturing the dead. 20 Halliday, M.A.K., Introduction to Functional Grammar, 3 rd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 586 ff. 21 Goatly, A., Washing the Brain: Metaphor and Hidden Ideology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins , 2007, p. 281. 22 See, for example, Downing, A., & Locke, P., English grammar: a university course. London: Routledge, 2006, p. 163. It goes without saying that almost is normally a degree adverb, crooked is an adjective, while sausage, harpsichord, iamb and vulture are typically nouns. The clause structure and the inflectional morphology (-ing and -ed) used in these examples, however, show clearly that these words are to be understood as verbs. In fact, not only are the italicized words in (11) verbs, they are the main verbs in the predicative center of each sentence, changing the experiential structure of the sentences. When almost, crooked, sausage, harpsichord, etc., become predicators, this marked use requires different cognitive mappings of the sentence elements onto different semantic and syntactic structures. The event is then perspectivised in a fresh way, requiring the reader to work out what it means to almost something, or creating an image of how a person can be sausaged into an overcoat. Further examples are shown in (12): 12) a. Under its leaf he watched through peacocktwittering lashes the southing sun. b. BLOOM: Simply satisfying a need I... (With pathos) No girl would when I went girling. Too ugly. They wouldn’t play... c. Arabesquing wearily they weave a pattern on the floor, weaving, unweaving, curtseying, twirling, simply swirling. d. He began to mazurka in swift caricature across the floor on sliding feet past the fireplace to J. J. O’Molloy who placed the tissues in his receiving hands. f. He had been meantime taking stock of the individual in front of him and Sherlockholmesing him up ever since he clapped eyes on him. g. But, gramercy, what of those Godpossibled souls that we nightly impossibilise […] In all of the above examples, some ‘non-verb’ word classes (mostly nouns) have been converted to verbs through the process of zero derivation, i.e. no derivational morphology is used in the conversion. 23 Though this seems to be a common derivational strategy used in Ulysses, other types certainly do occur in the novel, many of which go unnoticed since they are part and parcel of everyday speech (e.g. verb to noun conversion in phrases like have a drink rather than drinking, taking a look rather than looking, etc.). The following, however, exemplify other types of striking grammatical metaphors gleaned from the text: 13) a. Practice dwindling. A mighthavebeen. Losing heart. Gambling. b. The ghost walks, professor MacHugh murmured softly, biscuitfully to the dusty windowpane. 23 Despite the label, zero derivation does not mean that no morphology at all can be used; inflectional morphology is typically added to the converted word by Joyce in accordance with the word class as we are intended to understand it; in fact, it is the unexpected inflectional morphology that facilitates our reframed understanding of the converted word. c. The cold domed room of the tower waits. Through the barbacans the shafts of light are moving ever, slowly ever as my feet are sinking, creeping duskward over the dial floor. Blue dusk, nightfall, deep blue night. d. A young man clinging to a spur of rock near him, moved slowly frogwise his green legs in the deep jelly of the water. e. Thanks awfully muchly. All the examples in (13) have in common that they are conversions to NON-verbal word classes, in (13a) a verb phrase is used as a noun, in (13b) a noun (biscuit) is converted to an adverb (via an intermediate morphological step as an adjective, biscuitful). In terms of word-formation processes, it is a mixed bag, (13a) using a combination of compounding and zero derivation, whereas the others use conventional derivational morphology in unconventional ways, sometimes resulting in a conversion of one word class to another (as in duskward or frogwise), but not always (as in muchly). The sentences in (14) exemplify a different type of grammatical metaphor: 14) a. – Eureka! Buck Mulligan cried. Eureka!//Suddenly happied he jumped up and reached in a stride John Eglinton's desk. b. But, gramercy, what of those Godpossibled souls that we nightly impossibilise […] Note that both happy and happied are adjectival, so the switch here is not directly about the employment of grammatical metaphor to change entities to processes or attributes (or vice versa) but rather the effect in this instance is to modify the ‘phase state’ of the adjective, i.e. happy is merely a state whereas happied (if such a word exists) is a resultative state, i.e. a result of being made happy (cf. other cases which work this way such as straight (adjective: state) straighten (inchoative verb) straightened (adjective: result of the act of straightening). I would contend that this type of conversion also alters the experiential dimension of the message since a state adjective does not imply any process or agent, whereas these pseudo-resultative adjectives do. In (14b) the agent (God) is explicitly merged into the word, the phrase does not simply mean ‘possible’ souls, it refers clearly to ‘souls made possible by God’. Download 298.07 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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