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Use of agents and mediators
In some cultures (for example, Arab cultures), negotiations are very often 
conducted through agents or mediators. Arabs following Islamic traditions 
often use mediators to settle disputes. Mediation is also valued in the col-
lectivist cultures of Southeast Asia, for example, in Singapore and Indonesia. 
The use of mediators helps protect the honour, dignity and self- respect of all 
parties and aims to avoid any direct confrontation between the parties. In 
addition, it avoids placing either party in a situation in which it has to show 
weakness, lose ‘face’ or admit defeat. When there is little familiarity with 
the other culture, negotiators may use an agent or advisor who is suitably 
familiar with the cultures of both parties involved in the negotiations.
Mediators may be most helpful when they are able to encourage one party 
in the negotiations to agree to adopt the cultural approach of the other party 
or (which can also be of mutual benefit) to follow the cultural approach of 
the mediator’s own home culture. Mediation has the advantages of generally 
being less costly, less time- consuming and less adversarial than arbitration, 
and is more likely to produce greater satisfaction for both parties. It is based 
on procedural rules, requires the willingness of both parties to a dispute to 
receive help and may resolve the root causes of an ongoing dispute by focus-
ing on basic issues rather than on positions. (Lewicki, 2008: 473–84).
The following list provides examples of mediation:
The US Senator George Mitchell and the Canadian General Chatelaine 
mediated in the protracted discussions regarding the decommissioning of 
IRA weapons and the resulting peace process in Northern Ireland.
The Dayton Peace Accords of 14 December 1995, signed after negotiations 
in Dayton, Ohio lasting almost a month, which created the Federation 
of Bosnia- Herzegovina and the Serbian Republic (Republika Srpska), an 
example of multitrack diplomacy with the USA acting as the mediator.
The Camp David Accords in 1978 between Egypt and Israel, again with 
the USA acting as mediator.
The warring political factions in Kenya in 2007 finally resolved their 
differences after Kofi Annan, the former UN Secretary- General, acted as 
the mediator assisted by the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (CHD), 
a Swiss- based organization of mediators.
The agenda
As in meetings, an agenda listing the points that have been agreed to be 
discussed should be issued to all concerned before the actual negotiations 
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172 Cross-Cultural Communication
begin. This provides a structure to proceedings and helps signpost the 
stages in the negotiating process. It is also valuable when there are possible 
language difficulties and, above all, should contain no surprises if trust is to 
be maintained.