Cross- cultural Communication This page intentionally left blank

Richard Lewis
Richard Lewis is the Chairman of Richard Lewis Communications, an 
international institute of
cross- cultural and linguistic training in over 
30 countries. His key work is When Cultures Collide (first published in 1996, 
now in its third edition, published in 2011). This builds on work by the 
Halls and Hofstede, and provides an essentially practical guide to under-
standing different cultures.
Lewis identifies three types of culture (Lewis, 2011: 33–4). These are 
summarized below:
 Linear- active: examples are the Germans, Americans, Swiss and Swedes, 
who tend to be highly organized, task- orientated and do one thing at a 
time. Time for them is clock- related as they are basically monochronic. 
Information is imparted in sequential blocks. Emphasis is placed on 
getting things done. Relationships are built through successful business 
rather than as a precursor to business itself.
 Multi- active: examples are the Arabs, Africans, Greeks, Italians and most 
Asians, who are characterized by flexible planning to deal with frequent 
change. They are polychronic and like to develop and acquire informa-
tion polysynchronically. They are happy with interruptions and are less 
interested in schedules or punctuality. They build a network of contacts 
and often tend to handle information at a tangent, that is, one idea 
will spark another. They also tend to adapt to circumstances rather than 
appearing anxious about change. Most of the world’s cultures tend to be 
multi- active and are seen by linear- active cultures as more disorganized, 
whereas the former see linear- active cultures as less flexible and, at times, 
verging on the arrogant.
Reactive: examples are the Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and Finns, who prefer 
to listen first, make sure of the other person’s position and then react. They 
do not speak in a direct way, but often prefer to ‘beat about the bush’. As a 
result, they can be, to some extent, considered as a ‘wait and see’ culture. 
They often prefer to know their counterpart’s position before exposing their 
own. They see events repeating themselves, and in these cultures, knowl-
edge and wisdom are accumulated over time. These cultures are reflective 
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Key Thinkers in Cross- Cultural Communication (2) 57
and introvert, and value silence and contemplation. They are skilled in 
non- verbal communication, using subtle body language. This approach can 
cause anxiety when they communicate with linear- active or multi- active 
cultures. They are more collective than proactive individualist cultures. In 
reactive cultures, communication is often a monologue, with pauses for 
reflection, as opposed to both linear- active and multi- active cultures, which 
prefer a dialogue mode of communication, with interruptions, comments 
and questions, all of which indicate interest in what is being said.
The Lewis Cultural Model is shown below in diagrammatic form.
Reactive
Multi-active
Linear-active
Figure 3.2 The Lewis Cultural Model (Lewis, 2011: 41)