History of Civilizations of Central Asia
Part II: POLITICAL CHANGES AND STATE
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Part II:
POLITICAL CHANGES AND STATE FORMATION 206
Contents ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1850s to the 1920s 8 THE EVOLUTION OF NATION-STATES * Madhavan K. Palat Contents From the 1850s to the 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
From the 1920s to the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
From the 1850s to the 1920s 1 The first phase was marked by the complete absence of nation-states although national movements had begun stirring from the 1870s and 1880s everywhere except perhaps Afghanistan. The existing states were either empires like the Qajars in Iran, or parts of colonial empires such as that of the British in India or the Russians in Central Asia proper. Only Afghanistan was no longer an empire, but it was a territory mostly hemmed in by three empires and the product of their rivalries. Subordinate political entities existed in the two colonial empires. These were Bukhara and Khiva in the Russian empire and what were known as the ‘princely states’ in the British Indian empire, of which the states of Jammu and Kashmir, and various others in Punjab, were the most notable. But all these were essentially provinces of the two empires in all respects other than technical defin- ition. They were a different type of province from the regular ones, however, for their archaic structures were deliberately preserved and even put on exhibition by the colonial state. Princes were just another type of governor or colonial official, their administrations * See Maps
1 – 6 . 1 The period covered by this chapter clearly divides into three for the whole region: from the 1850s to the 1920s; the 1920s to the 1940s; and the 1940s to the 1990s. However, for easier reading, the last two periods will be considered together. 207 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1850s to the 1920s a variant of the colonial one, and all were directed and functioned within the limits and structures set by the colonial state. Afghanistan was almost an extension of this system, for it could not conduct its own foreign policy and was subservient to the British empire in India, albeit with the freedom to determine its internal affairs, unlike the Indian princes. Qajar Iran was more independent, but nonetheless subject to British and Russian dictates in many important areas. In essence, it had been agreed as early as 1829, after the treaty of Turkaman Chay (1828), that northern Iran was in the Russian sphere of influence, and southern Iran was in the British, with only the centre under the full control of the shah. Even so, internal policy and even senior appointments were largely dictated by the two colonial powers; and Naser al-Din Shah (1848–96) once complained in 1888 that he could not go on a hunting trip to the north without explaining himself to the British, nor to the south without consulting the Russians. This de facto arrangement was ratified by treaty between the colonial powers only as late as 1907, though it had been in operation throughout the nineteenth century. But the model of the nation-state beckoned from Europe; and the seeds of national movements and modern nationalism had been sown in Central Asia with the Jadids, in Iran with Akhundzadeh, and in North India with the Aligarh, Arya Samaj and related move- ments, all of which dated from the 1870s and 1880s at least, some of them earlier. Prior to the 1920s, these nationalisms shared certain features arising from their common experience of colonial or semi-colonial subjugation. They were self-consciously modern- izing movements against what came to be known as their own traditionalisms; and they critiqued colonial modernization as a form of what later came to be called underdevelop- ment. In their critiques of their traditions they sought to pursue reforms through continuities with history; and they deplored the colonial modernization which attempted transforma- tion through alienating ruptures with the past. Their models of state and development were mostly liberal; they aligned themselves with models and practices in the metropolises, whether London, St Petersburg or Paris; and they roundly condemned the perversion of these ideals in the colonial states in Central Asia, India and the client state in Iran. As nationalists, they aimed to create a nation or a nation-state where none existed as yet. Nowhere in Russian Central Asia was there even a semblance of nations. There were relics of kingdoms like Bukhara and Khiva, or recently extinguished states like Kokand and the three Kazakh Hordes or Zhuzs. But none of these resembled or functioned as nations. Loyalties were owed to tribes, clans and rulers, not to the territory and to the abstraction known as the nation. The territories over which the sultans, emirs and khans ruled or exercised varying degrees of control were not defined by a single language or a common culture, or even necessarily a single religion, although Islam dominated into 208 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1850s to the 1920s the plains of Punjab. These territories were assemblages of various clans, tribes and com- munities under dynastic rulers and their ruling hierarchies. There was a wide variety of languages, with Persian as the language of culture and administration. It was from this bundle of cultures, shifting group loyalties and variable power structures that the Jadid intelligentsia dreamed of forging a great Turkistani nation in Central Asia, united by their common linguistic membership of the Turkic family (with the solitary exception of the Persian-speaking Tajiks), their common Islamic religion and a liberal model of government and development. The visionaries of the future Turkistan were of varied background. Some were Tatars like Isma‘il Bey Gaspirali (1851–1914); others were Bashkirs like Ahmad Zeki Velidi, also known as Togan (1890–1970); or Munawwar Qari ‘Abdurashid Khan-oghli (1880–1933) in Tashkent; and Mahmud Khoja Behbudi (1874–1919) and ‘Abdurrauf Fitrat (1884–1937) in Samarkand. Their method was an inno- vative pedagogy, the nursery of the new intelligentsia; and, as one of their school text- books put it simply, ‘our homeland [watan] is the Turkistan country’. There was no talk of Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek or Tajik. But this ‘Turkistan’ was not a precise geographic entity such as India, Afghanistan or Iran. It was merely understood as the land of the Turkic people, which could include both the Crimean Tatars and the Uighurs in Chinese Turkistan. In practical terms, however, it meant what later came to be known as Soviet Central Asia. The Russian colonial state had no notion or plan for a nation of any kind in this vast region; their concepts did not pro- ceed beyond provinces defined by political and administrative convenience. Thus the first identification of territory and language, with the goal of modern development as emanci- pation, was made by the Jadids; it was on that foundation that the Soviet Union built, but by fracturing the territorial and linguistic ideal into five. NORTH INDIA North India was comparable and yet different in important respects. Here also, a num- ber of kingdoms with shifting boundaries were held together by nothing more than their respective ruling dynasties. A particular territory was not central to their constitution, nor was language; only the dynasty and the ruling hierarchies mattered. As in Central Asia, a colonial empire was superimposed on this crazy quilt, and indeed at almost the same time, the first half to the middle of the nineteenth century. On this patchwork foundation, the intelligentsia constructed its ideal of a new nation based on the territory (the subcontinent) but with multiple languages. Language was not the single identifier of the nation and its territory, as was mostly the case in Europe, as the Jadid intelligentsia sought to establish for their Turkistani nation, and as the Iranian nationalist intelligentsia had selected Persian 209
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1850s to the 1920s for the modern nation. Nor was the cultural foundation of a single religion available in India as in Central Asia, Iran and Europe. The future nation and its territory were identi- fied through multiple criteria: a common recent history of dynastic rule under the Mughals and colonial subjection to the British; a recreated memory of a classical India of the sub- continent that was described as Hindu; and a composite culture of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and other religions and cultures that had flourished in apparent symbiosis for at least a millennium. A territory was defined; and a composite culture that was nearly impossible to define but was claimed to exist was confidently affirmed. But no single language, whether classical or living, could be specified; and a single religion, most importantly, could not be asserted. As in Central Asia and the Russian empire, here also the colonial state firmly repudiated any notion of nation and nationalism, derided it as manifestly impossible and worked tirelessly against nationalist projects of uniformities. The new nation was an anti- colonial emancipatory dream of the modern intelligentsia; and, like all dreams, it seemed unreal to all except the dreamers. IRAN Iran was another kind of empire; but unlike the Russian Central Asian and British Indian empires, its state was formally independent and could turn the empire directly into a nation through modernization from above, something the neighbouring colonial states could not contemplate. During the reforming phase of the reign of Naser al-Din Shah in the 1860s and 1870s, strenuous efforts were made to reform the institutions of government, the judiciary, the military and the state’s finances, comparable to the great reforms in Russia at that time and the Tanzimat in the Ottoman empire. Among the significant leaders of this outpouring of energy, Mirza Hoseyn Khan Moshir al-Dowle was already distinctly nationalist in his outlook and pronouncements. He worked for Iran, the resurgent nation; and he was in close touch with Akhundzadeh in Tiflis, who promoted the ideal of the rebirth of a great pre-Islamic Iran. It was only in the 1890s, however, that a true nationalist movement of the intelligentsia, represented by persons like Malkam Khan (the reformer of the 1860s), Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, Talebof, Maragheh’i and his son Ebrahim Beg, joined with these modernizing reforms from above. Their aim was to create an Iranian nation, drawing on the symbolism of pre-Islamic greatness, the Persian language purged of Arabic and European corruptions, and the country united and revived through the rule of law, citizenship, political representa- tion and self-directed economic development. The territory was already defined and fixed by the two colonial powers; and the Persian language was selected to carry this nationalism and to override Kurdish and Azeri, both major languages in Iran. These movements and 210
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1850s to the 1920s actions flowed into the constitutional revolution of 1905–11 and provided the foundation for the eventual reconstruction of Iran as a modern nation-state under the Pahlavi dynasty after the First World War. AFGHANISTAN The situation in Afghanistan was in many ways comparable to states in Central Asia and North India. Afghanistan was the creation of the two colonial rivals, with Britain providing the final guarantees and outlines of its boundaries to the Muhammadzai ruler, Dost Muham- mad Khan (1826–63), from the 1850s to 1863 when Herat was finally incorporated. To this territory, effectively created by the British and Russian empires, the name Afghanistan was given, although within the country ‘Afghan’ denoted only the Pashtoons. The territorial consolidation under the Muhammadzais was not accompanied by modern governance: the state remained a loose assemblage of clans, with the Pashtoons dominant. Both of Dost Muhammad Khan’s successors, Sher ‘Ali Khan (1863–4, 1869–78) and ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan (1880–1901), continued the territorial integration of Afghanistan but without con- spicuous success in building the state internally. The territory was a colonial shell with a tribal content. Afghanistan was theoretically akin to Iran in that it was an independent state, but it lacked even the degree of independence that the Qajar state enjoyed. Isolated as a buffer state by the colonial powers, Afghanistan did not participate in the modern politics of the intelligentsias of Iran, India and Central Asia. Neither from the state above as in Iran, nor from the intelligentsia from below as in the neighbouring regions, did any national modernizing initiative emerge. Even modern communications like the railways and the telegraph, so attractive to any state, and wider contact with the world outside, were firmly denied to the country. The next emir, Habibullah Khan (1901–19), introduced the rudiments of modern education modelled on Aligarh in India, while a group of Young Afghans led by Mahmud Tarzi emulated the Young Turk movement and proposed modern reforms of the state. But these initiatives were confined to the narrowest layer at the top of the social hierarchy; they did not enter the policies of the state and there was no intelligentsia to sustain it. Afghanistan remained trapped and isolated in tribal and regional fragmentation without a nationalizing movement from above or below. It had to wait until Amanullah (1919–29) after the First World War for such action. 211
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1920s to the 1990s From the 1920s to the 1990s This set of circumstances altered dramatically in the 1920s in the wake of the world war, revolutions and nationalist movements. It was now the epoch not merely of defining and strategizing, but of deliberate action by states and national movements in nation-building in the whole region. In Central Asia proper, the new Soviet state created in stages the five republics of Kaza- khstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, further subdivided into the Karakalpak autonomous republic in Uzbekistan and Gorno- Badakhshan in Tajikistan. The Jadid Pan-Turkic dream of a single Turkistani state with a single language was fractured into five national states of which four were Turkic-speaking – and one (Tajikistan) Persian- speaking. But the principles of linguistic nationalism were applied, those of defining a territory by language and a supposed common history, and calling the population in it a single people and granting them a single state. This was the exercise carried out in what is known as national territorial delimitation in 1924. There were of course important departures from these principles. Kazakhstan was com- posed of Kazakhs and Russians in roughly equal proportions and both were minorities. Yet the name Kazakhstan was designed to suggest that this was the country of the Kazakh peo- ple, a people who spoke a single language and belonged to a single territory and state even if they were a minority there. This is what is known as the ‘titular nationality’. Another exception was in Uzbekistan, where the Karakalpak autonomous republic was carved out to accommodate a different language; and the same occurred in Tajikistan with Gorno- Badakhshan. In addition, there were important minorities in each republic, however strenuous the attempts at drawing the borders to assemble compact groups. The most flagrant example, amounting almost to an anomaly, was the location of the majority Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara in Uzbekistan to the dismay of the Tajiks. But then, these two cities were entirely surrounded by Uzbek territory; and if they were to be in Tajikistan, a large Uzbek population would have been carried into Tajikistan. Either solution would have been unsat- isfactory by purely nationalist logic, and it is a measure of how inadequate such nationalist logic necessarily is. Such compromises have to occur as cultural groups are intermingled the world over and it would be almost impossible to find pure uniformities. Nationalism creates or attempts to create such uniformities. The Soviet system deliberately promoted the Turkic languages and Tajik (which is Per- sian) over the next quarter-century into fully modern languages, ensured universal literacy in these languages in their respective territories, and employed them from primary school 212
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1920s to the 1990s to post-secondary education, as also in the administration. These were accompanied by ‘nativization’ (korenizatsiya) policies in appointments, that is, people of the territory were given preference in party and state structures, such that the new nations now acquired their own political and administrative leaderships, their own cultural institutions from schools to museums, radio stations and ballet troupes, and of course their own languages. New nations were born, with remarkably distinct identities, as a process of building from top down as much from bottom up. The first stage of these processes was carried out from the 1920s to the 1940s; but it entailed shattering the Pan-Turkic dream of the old pre-revolutionary Jadid intelligentsia and persecuting them in the 1930s in the course of moulding a new Soviet intelligentsia. Such was the Soviet enterprise: to find, as far as was possible, territories with compact populations and to create new nations with single languages in them. The Soviet undertaking differed from what is customarily understood as nationalism in that these new Soviet nations were not permitted independence, they were subjected to the ideological homogenization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). How- ever, Soviet practice was not as exceptional as the furious ideological battles throughout most of the twentieth century have made it appear. Quebecois nationalism within Canada, Catalan within Spain, or Welsh and Scottish within the United Kingdom, are all instances of permitted nationalisms and nations within a larger state boundary and subject to consti- tutional homogeneity or compatibility. The nationalisms within the European Union (EU) are allowed within the strict limits of what are constitutionally and, more importantly, ide- ologically defined as liberal democracies. Within India, a number of regional nationalisms were promoted by political parties before 1947 on the premise of a single overarching nation; and they were deliberately fashioned by both the independent state and parties thereafter, all subject to their being contained within the Union and functioning according to the constitution of India. This is a combination of ideology and procedure comparable in principle to what the CPSU imposed on the Soviet Union, or the EU (including its earlier avatars) demands of its members. The Soviet system belongs to one end of the spectrum, the EU to the other, in terms of tightness of control; but essential similarities should not be overlooked in the heat of ideological debate.
But the CPSU itself did not admit of any nationalism, indeed it denounced it ceaselessly, for it was constructed as a unitary system with territorial branches in each republic. Neither the party nor the republic represented a nationality as such: in each case they represented the territory of the republic only. Thus the party in Kazakhstan could not officially speak for the Kazakhs of Uzbekistan; and Tatarstan could not represent the Tatars of Kazakhstan, and so on. This was especially significant for Tajikistan given that Samarkand and Bukhara 213 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1920s to the 1990s were essentially Tajik cities, and for the Russian Republic which could not speak up for the Russians in Kazakhstan. These policies and practices derived from the Leninist rejection of any party representing a nationality, whether the Bund representing the Jews, or others attempting to represent the Latvians, Georgians or Tatars. Thus nations and perhaps even nation-states were created without sovereignty, and fitted into the Soviet Union under the direction of the CPSU. Nations had emerged in a swathe of territory whose previous history did not promise anything of the kind; and this had occurred in conditions that were ideologically hostile to nationalism. However, there was an ambigu- ity in the structure and practice of the CPSU. Its division into republican branches caused these branches to fuse with these nations gradually; and the original slogan and practice of ‘socialist in content, nationalist in form’ of the Stalin years imperceptibly evolved in the post-Stalin decades into the practical politics of ‘nationalist in content, communist in form’. The party leaders, despite their membership of the party and its necessary discipline, had effectively also become national leaders of the territories or republics they represented. The republics had become nations in the full sense of the term; once they became sov- ereign, they would be nation-states, as occurred in 1991. The initial success of the CPSU in fashioning nations, and this symbiotic evolution of nation and party subsequently, largely accounts for the stability of the Soviet regime until the 1980s and for the remarkably peaceful break-up of the Union into five stable independent nation-states in its Central Asian regions in 1991. It also accounts for the surprising stability of the Central Asian regimes after 1991 in the face of extraordinarily destabilizing forces, with the exception of Tajikistan. But even in Tajikistan, the territorial arrangement has not been questioned, and the regime has survived a debilitating civil war. NORTH INDIA In North India before 1947, the situation was different in the extreme, but with important parallels. The state, which was part of the British colonial empire, was obviously hostile to any form of nationalism; but, unlike the Soviet Union, it could not dream of promot- ing any kind of regional nationalism. It maintained and even reinforced its patchwork of administrative provinces and princely states. But the chief contender for power, the nation- alist Congress Party, pursued a form of mobilization akin to that in the Soviet Union. It did so by reorganizing itself from 1920 on the basis of linguistic regions. Its nationalist mobilization would now take place on this new territorial and linguistic base, all of it combining under the larger Indian National Congress for the subcontinent. Thus, as in the Soviet Union, a two-tier nation-state structure was emerging, one for the sovereign state of international relations, and the other, the regional nationalisms that would federate into 214
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1920s to the 1990s India but be governed in unitary fashion by the single Congress Party. The superstructure was multilingual, but the regional units had a single language each, albeit with important exceptions and compromises. These departures from the rule are important, especially in North India. Not all the Hindi-speaking territories were combined into one linguistic province; they were instead divided into several provinces: Himachal Pradesh (1948); Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan (1956); and Haryana (1967). The regional national movement in the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir occurred in a linguistically diverse territory that spoke Hindi, Kashmiri and Urdu. In Punjab it consisted of Punjabi, Hindi and Urdu. But while Hindi (or Hindustani) and Urdu could interpenetrate, neither of them enjoyed that form of compatibility with either Kashmiri or Punjabi, which were both very distinct. Thus they developed as regions, each with multiple languages, until Punjab was divided into Punjabi-speaking Punjab and Hindi-speaking Haryana in 1967. It was the same with Bombay, which had two official languages, Marathi and Gujarati, until the separate states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were created out of Bombay province in 1960. Jammu and Kashmir has, however, remained a single state with its special history as the bone of con- tention between India and Pakistan. Whatever the departures from the rule, the Indian National Congress would not accept any religious units within itself, just as the CPSU refused national representation within the party. The Congress insisted on the non-religious organization of the party, and therefore of the future constitution of the country it expected to rule. The Congress Party’s secular nationalism was severely challenged by the religious nationalisms of Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus. By far the most portentous was the move- ment for Pakistan as a homeland for the Muslims, followed by the demand for a separate state for the Sikhs. Both were national movements defined by religion, not language. A comparable movement flourished among Hindus, that of the Hindu Mahasabha and of the Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSSS) for a Hindu nationalism and a Hindu India. Hindus being the majority, however, these movements of Hindu nationalism were con- tained by and partially even within the Indian National Congress. From the 1920s to the late 1940s, divergent definitions of the future post-colonial independent nation and nations competed for space. One was secular in its overarching principle, with linguistic subdivi- sions, and as such akin to the Soviet construction, albeit with a liberal ideology of politics. The other was religious (called communal in South Asian political vocabulary), and with or without linguistic subdivisions. They were principally Hindu, Muslim and Sikh. Colonial India therefore was not fashioned into a secular nation with linguistic sub- nations in the manner of the Soviet Union; it was reconstructed after 1947 as multiple 215 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1920s to the 1990s nations and multiple sub-nations following multiple constitutive principles, religious, sec- ular and linguistic. Pakistan became a land for the Muslims; but a vast number of Muslims remained in India, and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir had a Muslim majority. Pakistan fractured in 1971, when Bangladesh broke off as a separate sovereign Bengali nation-state. It was Muslim, but refused to remain with Pakistan. It was Bengali-speaking, but had opted for an independent Muslim nationhood with Pakistan in 1947 and rejected union with the Hindu-majority West Bengal in India. Thus two Bengali nations emerged, one a sovereign state and Muslim, the other not sovereign, majority Hindu, but distinct in its identity within India. Religion by itself could not provide the basis for nationhood, how- ever, and multiple nations with the same religion appeared in the north and east of South Asia, in Pakistan and Bangladesh as sovereign states, and in Kashmir within India. In addi- tion, powerful movements for a separate homeland for the Sikhs swept through Punjab in the 1960s (the Punjabi Suba agitation) and the 1980s (the Khalistan insurgency); but the Indian state firmly beat off a religious sub-nationalism while conceding the linguistic one for Punjabi-speakers in 1967. AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan is a peculiar example of a state that has not yet been able to become a nation. In 1919 Amir Amanullah, one of Tarzi’s Young Afghans, entered into conflict with the British in India to take advantage of the weakened British empire after the First World War. Although he was militarily beaten off, he was politically successful in having the sovereign independence of Afghanistan recognized by the treaty of Rawalpindi in 1921 and promptly signing a treaty with the Soviet Union that year. This was a first major step toward build- ing his nation. Amanullah followed it up in 1923 with a new constitution which pursued the reforms typical of such modernizers. He declared himself p¯adsh¯ah (king), established a council of ministers to assert the powers of the central government, proposed free edu- cation, emancipated women from purdah and permitted co-educational schools, thereby reducing the powers of the ‘ulam¯a’ in education. These measures inevitably threatened the power of local notables, in this case tribal leaders, and of the clergy; they also disquieted conservatives, who had to rethink all issues of social relations, especially those of gender. Such sweeping moves must be sustained by a state that is already sufficiently developed to beat off the conservative opposition, as for example under Peter the Great in Russia in the early eighteenth century; or such acts must be carried out by a compelling movement from below against an inadequate state, as in the French and Russian revolutions; or the movements from above and below must coalesce in sundry fashion, as happened more prosaically in most of Europe, especially Britain and Germany. But in Afghanistan under 216
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 From the 1920s to the 1990s Amanullah and thereafter, none of these conditions were available: both the state and the intelligentsia were too feeble to carry such a burden. Amanullah met his nemesis in 1928: tribal leaders rose against the usurping modern state; the clergy rebelled against the loss of their ideological monopoly; and conservatives were appalled in general at the social reforms. After his overthrow and a brief interregnum, the new king, Nadir Shah (1929–33), secured his position by reversing Amanullah’s modernizing reforms, just as his son and successor, Zahir Shah (1933–73), did. But modernization beckoned. Muhammad Daud, prime minister from 1953, turned to Amanullah’s abandoned project of creating the nation-state through centralization, mod- ernization and nationalism, with a powerful army, economic development and their appropriate ideological structures. He turned increasingly to the Soviet Union for help, given that the United States was sponsoring both Pakistan (with whom Afghanistan had an unresolved dispute over ‘ Pashtoonistan’) and Iran. Daud’s modernization led to the con- stitutional monarchy of 1964 and the eventual deposition of the king himself in the coup of 1973. But he aligned his new republic ever more with the Soviet Union, which led in quick succession to his overthrow in 1978 by the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan, the Soviet invasion of 1979, the United States and Pakistan fuelling the Islamist guerrilla war, and the triumph of the Mujahidin in 1992 and the Taliban in 1996. This unhappy story reproduced an old rhythm. Afghanistan has been unable to modern- ize into a nation-state through modern party politics and a centralized developmental state. It has remained instead a territory of tribal and other factions, degenerating into warlords in the 1990s, such that the state remained a coalition of tribal and ethnic power groups. Afghanistan is the most failed nation in the entire region, first as the victim of isolation and the plaything of the colonial powers, and then as the battleground of the superpowers. There is as yet no indication of a way out of this impasse. IRAN
Iran, however, evolved successfully into a nation-state, albeit in the most turbulent fashion. The Pahlavi monarchy was a vigorous modernizer from the outset in 1925. It asserted itself against tribes, nomads and feudal landlords, pursued industrialization and expanded education and the services. It emancipated women, undercut the ‘ulam¯a’’s monopoly or control over education and the judiciary, and even took over the licensing of religious teaching. In its nationalist symbolism, it projected a pre- Islamic greatness of Sasanian and Achaemenid times, thus shifting the national identity from Shi‘ite Islam to pre-Islamic Persianness. Linguistically, it Persianized at the expense of the other languages, Azeri and Kurdish. 217
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Conclusion Iran possessed the ingredients that Afghanistan lacked: a powerful state, a developed intelligentsia and firm international support from the US. The national project could be carried forward for that reason. But the Pahlavi enterprise provided no space for that intelligentsia; and an intelligentsia engages in such state-building only as a participant, not as a subordinate. The CPSU, despite its repression, Indian electoral politics, and the fitful combination of electoral politics and military rule in Pakistan, all in their respective ways actively engaged the intelligentsia. In Pahlavi Iran, a powerful and developed intel- ligentsia was excluded. The shahs were overly dependent on the instruments of state and on their alignment with the US. The state was thus no more than a dictatorship to radi- cals, an abomination to the ‘ulam¯a’, a usurper to landed magnates and tribal leaders, and offensive to republicans for being a monarchy. To nationalists, its unqualified attachment to the US recalled the pitiful subservience of the Qajars to the colonial powers rather than the grandeur of the Achaemenids and Sasanians with whom the Pahlavis identified themselves to excess. A vibrant intelligentsia or public opinion would have converted these negative features into positive achievements; but it was a relationship that did not fructify. The Islamic revo- lution of 1979, the enormously expensive war with Iraq (1980–8) and the sustained isola- tion imposed on the Islamic Republic of Iran by the US have produced a most chequered history. Regimes have come and gone, but the Iranian nation and nation-state have emerged much fortified from these vicissitudes, for the state and the public have a symbiotic rela- tionship and a common commitment to fashioning the nation. This was more than the Pahlavis could manage. Conclusion As is evident, there is no single model of a nation-state in the region. For India and for Russian and Soviet Central Asia, it was a composite multi-tiered structure, as both imagined and practised; Iran was more nearly a single nationstate; and Afghanistan has remained a state without becoming a nation and still less a nation-state. The criteria used to construct these nations have been varied – religion, language, ethnicity or pragmatic com- binations of all these features. However diverse the instruments and criteria, the nations have been forming since at least the 1920s, when effective nationalist mobilizations and statebuilding began as an interrelated process. Even Afghanistan, which has been a remark- able failure, promises to become a nation when development takes effect. It is sometimes suggested that nations, nationalism and nation-states are passé; certainly that does not hold true for Central Asia. The nation dominates the political landscape more than religion or any other ideology; it is the one constant and common attribute of the politics of the region. 218
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