Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
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On information structure 3.1 The discourse status of noun phrases Argument structure, the precedence relations among constituents, the presence or absence of pivot structure, whether pivot choice is symmetrical or asymmetri- cal, etc. are all aspects of the basic lexically determined syntactic organization of a clause. Most sentences do not occur in isolation but are uttered in the course of an ongoing verbal interaction, e.g. as part of an ongoing story, in response to an earlier question or assertion, as the next step in a Thai curry recipe, etc. Thus, speakers can assume that there is information about already mentioned events and participants common to both them and their addressees, but other information which is not. The structuring of sentences along these A typology of information packaging 403 parameters – that is, the discourse-given information-carrying status of sen- tence constituents – is called information structure. The operation of infor- mation structure is well illustrated by mini-dialogues, like these drawn from Russian: (99) (a) Q: kt´o zaˇsˇciˇsˇcajet V´ıktor-a who.nom defends Victor-acc ‘Who defends Victor?’ A: V´ıktor-a zaˇsˇciˇsˇcajet Maks´ım Victor-acc defends Maxim.nom ‘Maxim defends Victor’ (b) Q: Kog´o zaˇsˇciˇsˇcajet Maks´ım who.acc defends Maxim.nom ‘Whom does Maxim defend?’ A: Maks´ım zaˇsˇciˇsˇcajet V´ıktor-a Maxim.nom defends Victor-acc ‘Maxim defends Victor’ Comrie (1987: 95) Note that the answer to the questions in English can have exactly the same word order; this is not possible in Russian. Rather the np which provides the answer to the question word kt´o ‘who’ or kog´o ‘whom’ must always occur clause- finally, while the information already established by the question must precede it. The question thus sets up certain information expectations of nps that must be realized in the information structure of the answer. The np providing the answer to the question word is the focus of the clause, expressing the new information the clause is expected to provide. The whole point of uttering it in first place is to register this new information in the addressee’s store of knowledge. The remainder is what is assumed by the speaker to be common knowledge shared by himself and his addressee; it is presupposed. The information structure for (99a) could be represented as: (100) Q: Presupposed: someone is defending Victor Focus: who is that someone? A: Presupposed: someone is defending Victor Focus: that someone is Maxim With the exception of question words like kt´o ‘who’ and kog´o ‘whom’, which always come first even though they represent focussed information, Russian has a fairly rigid rule of information structure: presupposed information precedes focussed information. Focussed information typically occurs at the end of a sentence: 404 William A. Foley (101) Presupposed: someone is defending Victor Focus: that someone is Maxim V ktor -a zasciscajet Maksím Victor - ACC defends Maxim. NOM PRESUPPOSED FOCUS ^ ^ ^ ^ í Example (101) presents an obvious question as to the information status of the first np, V´ıktor-a ‘Victor-acc’. This corresponds to the topic of the sentence, another elemental notion of information structure, again best illustrated through the use of mini-dialogues: (102) S: Maks´ım ubiv´ajet Aleks´ej-a Maxim.nom kills Alex-acc ‘Maxim kills Alexei’ Q: a V´ıktor-a and Victor-acc ‘and Victor?’ A: V´ıktor-a M´aksim zaˇsˇciˇsˇcajet Victor-acc Maxim.nom defends ‘Maxim defends Victor’ Comrie (1987: 96) Typically, a sentence expresses a comment about some entity. This entity is really what the sentence is about, its presupposed starting point. It is referred to by an np which corresponds to the topic of the sentence. The topic is the link which ties the information communicated in this sentence with what has preceded. It is the source of coherence which makes the sentence relevant and interpretable within the context of the ongoing verbal interaction. The topic is fundamentally the presupposed information of the sentence that the remainder comments upon. In Russian, as in many languages, the topic typically occurs clause-initially; the initial np in the final answer in the above mini-dialogue has the following topic–comment structure. (103) Topic: concerning Victor Comment: Maxim defends him There are, then, two systems expressed in the information structure of the Russian clause, that of presupposed–focus and topic–comment. The informa- tion structure of the final answer in (102) could be diagrammed as: A typology of information packaging 405 (104) topic comment Viktor-a Máksim presupposed focus zasciscajet ^ ^ ^ ^ The basic word order rules that realize information structure in Russian stipulate that topic precedes comment and presupposed precedes focus. This typically results in a clausal order with the topic np sentence-initially and the focus np clause-finally. The topic prototypically denotes a presupposed established entity, while the focus supplies part of the comment, newly provided informa- tion, on that entity. A Russian sentence then prototypically proceeds from what is known, already established and presupposed in the topic, to what is unknown and only now supplied as new information by the focus. Information in English is realized in much the same way as Russian, through word order, in spite of the fact that English word order, unlike Russian, is also determined by lexical constraints, i.e. a [ +a] argument precedes a transitive verb while a [ −a] follows: Egbert killed Ian has assignments of [+a] and [−a] that are exactly opposite to Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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