Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
Ian killed Egbert. Still, the basic principle for English is
the same as for Russian: topic occurs sentence-initially, and focus, finally. This principle shows up clearly because not all English word order is rigidly fixed; in particular [ +oblique] nps have greater freedom; e.g. the children are playing in the yard versus in the yard the children are playing. These realize different information structures, as is apparent from constructing mini-dialogues: (105) Q: Where are the children playing? A: The children are playing in the yard FOCUS PRESUPPOSED A: ?In the yard FOCUS the children are playing PRESUPPOSED Q: Are the children singing in the yard? A: No, in the yard the children PRESUPPOSED are playing FOCUS (a) (b) So we find that the normal position for focussed information in English is sentence-finally, as in Russian. However, as we have seen, English does have lexically specified argument structure constraints on its word order options for [ −oblique] nps, so that if the focussed np is [−oblique] there may be deviations from this rule. The language does, however, require that such deviations be signalled, and this is normally done by a marked high falling pitch on a focussed np which is not in normal sentence-final position: 406 William A. Foley (106) Q: Who saw Bill? A: Bill was seen PRESUPPOSED by John FOCUS A: John saw Bill PRESUPPOSED FOCUS There are two opposing word order principles in these answers: one, from argument structure, that specifies that the [ +a] argument as [+pivot] proceeds a transitive verb and a [ −a] argument follows; and another, from information structure, that stipulates the order ‘presupposed precedes focus’. The problem is the focussed [ +a] np. In the first answer, the information structure principle wins out; the focussed np occurs clause-finally, but, because it is a [ +a] partici- pant, a passive construction which realizes it as [ +oblique] (see section 4) is necessary to do this. In the second answer the lexical argument structure principle wins out, so that the [ +a] argument is realized as [−oblique] [+pivot]. This violates the information structure principle because the focus np now occurs clause-initially. In order to indicate this marked position for focus, a high falling pitch occurs on the focus np. The preverbal, prototypically clause-initial position of the [ +pivot] np in English also complicates the realization of the topic notion in this language. There is in fact a strong correlation between the concepts of pivot and topic in English and other languages, a relationship I will discuss in greater depth in section 3.3. A typical way to express alternatives of topic choice in English is to select different pivots, for example: (107) Tears TOPIC streamed down her face COMMENT (a) Her face TOPIC streamed with tears COMMENT (b) (108) Blood TOPIC flowed in the streets COMMENT The streets TOPIC flowed with blood COMMENT (a) (b) The verbs stream and flow are ambiguously unergative or unaccusative intran- sitive verbs; as such they can select either [ +a] or [−a] sole arguments with A typology of information packaging 407 a corresponding semantic difference: moving object [ +a] versus fully affected location [ −a]. Correlated to this choice, however, is topic selection; whichever [ +a] or [−a] is [+pivot], it is also topic. In other similar cases, this option is tied to the selection of a different verb which lexicalizes pivot and hence topic choice: (109) Q: Where is the dot? TOPIC COMMENT A: The dot is inside the circle FOCUS PRESUPPOSED A: ?The circle surrounds the dot Q: Where is the circle? TOPIC COMMENT A: The circle surrounds the dot FOCUS PRESUPPOSED A: ?The dot is inside the circle (a) (b) The question in (109a) sets up the dot as presupposed and topic and then ques- tions its location, which thereby must be the focus of the answer. The first answer with dot as topic and pivot and inside the circle in clause-final focus position demonstrates proper English information structure in answer to this question. The second answer in which the transitive verb surround selects the circle as pivot is decidedly odd, because pivots are normally linked to topic nps, but the circle is in fact focus. Now, consider question (109b) which presents the circle as presupposed and topic and questions its location, setting this up as focus of the following answer. Now, the choice of the transitive verb sur- round is perfectly acceptable, because the circle is pivot and unmarked topic, while the dot, the landmark which specifies the location of the circle, follows the verb and can function as focus in normal clause-final position. Thus, the information structure of the first answer is expected, while that of the second is again odd because it presents the focus as pivot and unmarked topic and the topic in the clause-final position of the typical focus np. We can summarize the typical unmarked linking of English lexical-argument structure and information structure as: 408 William A. Foley (110) NP V TRANS NP [ + A ] [ – A ] – oblique + pivot – oblique – pivot TOPIC FOCUS The linkings of (110) are, of course, not fixed; English possesses many devices which allow alternative construals of lexical argument structure and information structure, for example intonation and high falling pitch in nps, as in (106). Any syntactic construction which affects pivot choice can also affect topic choice. The most pervasive construction in English which affects pivot choice is the passive (discussed in detail in section 4.1) and the con- trast between active and passive is typically tied to differences in information structure: (111) (a) The manager TOPIC sacked the workers COMMENT (b) The workers TOPIC were sacked by the manager COMMENT Again, this information structure contrast can be most easily viewed in con- structed mini-dialogues: (112) Q: Who saw Bill? A: Bill was seen by John COMMENT TOPIC Q: Whom did Bill see? A: ?John TOPIC was seen by Bill COMMENT (a) (b) The first pair exhibits normal information structure in the answer: the [ −a] Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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