Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
3.1.1
A concept of subject The concept of subject proposed here is that it is a grammatical relation that is the normal expression of the a and s grammat- ical functions, but not others such as p or obliques. As a grammatical relation, the subject concept should function as a significant ingredient in many of the grammatical phenomena of the language, so that it seems plausible to recognize it as a structural primitive. There are two major kinds of phenomena that are relevant to establishing the existence of subjects: first, the overt coding features in ordinary main clauses; and second, a variety of more complex and abstract grammatical phenomena, such as ‘subject ellipsis’, coding features in subor- dinate clauses, and others. When the coding features unambiguously indicate that a subject grammatical relation is present, the more abstract criteria seem invariably to concur. But it is also possible for the coding features to give no evidence, or equivocal evidence, about the presence of a subject. Then the more abstract properties sometimes show that there is a subject, sometimes not. We examine each of these phenomena in turn. 3.1.2 Subjects and coding features in ordinary main clauses In English and many other languages, there is a variety of coding features in ordinary main clauses that distinguish a of transitive clauses and s of intransitives from p of transitives and other grammatical functions such as obliques. For English, these include nominative as opposed to accusative case, preverbal position, and verb agreement: (47) a. He praises them nom.sg sg acc.pl b. He sleeps nom.sg sg The fact that these and more grammatical phenomena treat a and s alike indicates that, in English, these should not be thought of as independent grammatical functions, but as related ones, most straightfowardly by an analysis in which they are both expressed by a single grammatical relation, which, given our definition, we can call ‘subject’. A great many languages, including many of the familiar modern and classical languages of Europe, follow this pattern of unambiguous evidence for a subject grammatical relation on the basis of some combination of the coding features The major functions of the noun phrase 167 of word order, case marking and agreement. In Ancient and Modern Greek, for example, subjects of ordinary main clauses occupy no definite position, but are for the most part regularly marked by nominative case and agreement with the finite verb. But coding features frequently fail to give a clear indication of grammat- ical relations, or else give inconsistent indications, as happens, for example, in Warlpiri. We have already seen in 1.2.2 that Warlpiri np-marking assigns ergative case to nps with a function, and absolutive to nps with p or s function. Case marking therefore does not reflect a subject grammatical relation. But the cross-referencing system does. The nps that are cross-referenced are those with the cases labelled as ‘syn- tactic’ in 1.2.2: ergative, absolutive and dative. Cross-referencing of absolutive and ergative nps has already been illustrated in example (15) in 1.2.3, repeated below for convenience. Example (48) illustrates cross-referencing of a dative. Example (49) illustrates the failure of cross-referencing to apply with a semantic case, the allative: (15) Nya-nyi ka-rna-palangu wawirri-jarra (ngajulu-rlu) see-nonpast pres-1sg(subj)-3du(obj) kangaroo-du(abs) (1sg-erg) ‘I see two kangaroos’ (48) Ngaju ka-rna-ngku nyuntu-ku wangka-mi I(abs) pres-1sg(subj)-2sg(obj) you-dat talk-nonpast ‘I am talking to you’ (49) Ngaju ka-rna nyuntu-kurra parnka-mi I(abs) pres-1sg(subj) you-all run-nonpast ‘I am running toward you’ The form of the markers is not determined directly by the case of the np being cross-referenced. Rather, it seems to be determined primarily by a subject–object distinction in grammatical relations quite similar to that found in English. There are two sets of cross-reference markers, one for subjects, and another for objects. The cross-referencing is for number (singular, dual, plural) and person (first, second and third), with an inclusive–exclusive distinction in the first person dual and plural (see Bickel and Nichols in vol. iii, chapter 3, section 8, for discussion of these inflectional categories), with a limited case- distinction in the object markers. The subject set is used to cross-reference nps with a or s function, regardless of whether their case is ergative or absolutive: (50) a. Ngaju ka-rna purla-mi I-abs pres-1sg(subj) shout-nonpast ‘I am shouting’ |
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