Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
William A. Foley
3.4 Topics, pivots, and prominence We have seen that topics and pivots share a number of properties. Not only is the pivot the typical choice for topic in languages like English, but, cross- linguistically, the characteristic properties of pivots and topics show a great deal of overlap. But it is also clear from languages like English that we can- not completely equate pivots and topics, for sentences exist in which they are distinct: (131) TOPIC PIVOT I he I heard it everywhere in the Congo can’t get enough of it just saw him in the computer room (a) Soukous, (b) Thai cooking, (c) Fred, Let us call these non-pivot clause-initial topic nps external topics. Such con- structions are pervasive in the world’s languages (for Mayan examples, see Aissen (1992)). In sentences like those of (131), both the external topic and the pivot display features of information status typical of topics, although exter- nal topics are commonly (but not always) contrastive or non-presupposed, while pivots are typically continuing, presupposed topics (of course, piv- ots need not be topics at all in English: they can be focus nps: Who saw Ian?). External topics are not constituents of the clause, but are external to it, adjoined to the clause as a whole (see section 5 and chapter 3 by Andrews). And again unlike pivots, they are not restricted to [ −oblique] arguments. Indeed, external topics seem the least marked with [ +oblique] nps, more so with [ −oblique], [−pivot] nps and most marked with [−oblique], [+pivot] np s: (132) (a) In the morning I finished the article (b) In Sydney there is always lots to do (c) With this new computer I’ll be able to do a lot more (d) Egbert, I couldn’t find (e) That movie, I just couldn’t watch (f) Sam, he’s going to die tomorrow (g) Soukous, it’s the greatest African twentieth-century gift to civilization Note the prosodic and syntactic differences among the sentences in (132). When [ +oblique] nps function as external topic (132a–c), there is no pause between them and the following clause. When [ −oblique] [−pivot] nps appear A typology of information packaging 417 as external topics, as in (132d, e) the pause is noticeably longer, but when [ −oblique] [+pivot] nps are external topics (132f, g), a longer pause is by itself not enough. A resumptive np such as a pronoun must appear in the pivot position, where the external topic np would be expected to be found if not topicalized. Having established the contrast between external topics and pivots, there still remains the problem of explaining the correlations we have seen between topics and pivots. The answer seems to lie in the correlation of topics and pivots with the discourse-given features of information status of nps, in particular the concept of presupposed, established information or givenness. nps which refer to presupposed given referents, hence known and established, tend to be attenuated in formal realization. There is some cross-linguistic variation in this area, but the basic parameters of choice seem to be zero realization, i.e. control or zero anaphor; pronominal realization, as either a free pronoun or a bound verbal pronominal affix, or a full noun-headed np. So, sentences like Egbert saw Mary at the party and φ asked her to φ go out with him illustrate exactly this pattern. In the first clause, Egbert and Mary are first introduced, and, not being established or given prior to this clause, they are realized by full nps. But by the second conjoined clause and the infinitive complement, they are fully given and so can be realized by ellipsis φ or controlled φ or by pronouns her and him. The more highly given or presupposed an np is, the more extreme its degree of attenuation, as a rule of thumb. Topics are prototypically realized in attenuated form due to their high degree of givenness. But pivots are also prototypically realized in attenuated form; in one construction after another in section 2.2, in English, Dyirbal, and Tagalog, pivots are controlled nps, realized as φ. But control structures are nothing more than highly syntacticized construals of givenness in which the referents of the controlled np must be determined within the confines of the immediate sentence: John asked Mary [to φ go out with him]. The referent of φ must be Mary, but this is not necessarily true of him; it could be some other man, given the right context: Egbert really liked Mary but was very shy. So his friend John asked Mary to go out with him. So, while the referent of the pivot-controlled φ is necessarily bound to the immediate sentence (indeed the immediate main clause), this is not true of the [ +oblique] free pronominal. Thus, what topics and pivots share is their prototypical high prominence on a scale of givenness. This is not necessary – pivots can be focus, and topics, new information – but it is prototypical. As a result, both pivots and topics tend toward attenuated realization, and to be equated: an English pivot is normally topic, and if you want to alter topic choice, switch pivot choice (see examples (106–9)). In a very real sense, pivots are syntacticized topics, choices which are determined by syntactic considerations, like constituent structure, verbal agreement, lexical argument structure, control, etc. Being a required syntactic 418 William A. Foley notion, pivots have a certain degree of autonomy from a pragmatic notion like topic, but are nonetheless closely correlated for all the reasons we have been discussing. Of course, many, if not most, languages, lack pivots, and it is of interest to find out how the principles of topicality prominence work out in these languages. It turns out, as we might expect, that the prominence relations that inform argu- ment structure, [ +a] > [−a] > [ ], also determine relative likelihood of topical- ity. The [ +a] argument is simply the most topic-worthy np, and its position in this regard is no doubt buttressed by its prototypical animacy and often high posi- tion on the animacy hierarchy. In an asymmetrical pivot nominative–accusative language like English, the unmarked choice for pivot, and hence topic, is the most prominent argument in the argument structure, the [ +a] of a transitive verb (see (110)). Again the [ +a] is the most topic-worthy np. But, perhaps most surprisingly, Du Bois (1987) has shown that some features of this type of information structuring are even found in ergative–absolutive languages whose pivot is arguably the [ −a] of a transitive verb. In the Mayan language Saca- pultec, of the two arguments of a transitive verb, the [ +a] and [−a], the [+a] argument has a much higher frequency as an attenuated bound pronominal real- ization (87 per cent of the time as opposed to 53 per cent for [ −a] nps). Further, the [ +a] is normally given information. In fact there is an informal constraint to avoid non-presupposed [ +a] nps, while [−a] are often new information (only 3 per cent of [ +a] nps are new information, while 25 per cent of [−a] nps are – a ratio of 8 to 1!). In terms of the principles outlined here, [ +a] arguments are more topic-worthy than [ −a] arguments in Sacapultec, in spite of its [−a] pivot choice. Similar findings have been reported for other ergative–absolutive lan- guages like Chamorro (Cooreman (1987)) and for symmetrical languages like Tagalog (Cooreman, Fox, and Giv´on (1984)). These findings suggest the follow- ing principle: cross-linguistically, the most prominent argument in the argument structure is the unmarked choice for topic; various syntactic options can alter this, e.g. pronominal agreement, different pivot selections via active or passive voice, external topics, etc., but it always remains the neutral option, regard- less of the overall syntactic typology of the language. Only further work will demonstrate whether this strong claim holds up; I present it here as a working hypothesis. Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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