Medieval and early modern periods 1206
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Sultan Ibrahim was at a disadvantage, not only because of his out-moded infantry, but also the inter-necine rivalries. Even though he had more men, Sultan Ibrahim had never fought in a war against gunpowder weapons. Strategically, Sultan Ibrahim didn‘t know wh at to do militarily. Babur had the advantage right from the start. Sultan Ibrahim perished on the battlefield along with 20,000 of his men in April 1526.
After losing Samarkand for the third time, Babur gave attention to conquer India as he reached the banks of the Chenab in 1519. Until 1524, his aim was to only expand his rule to Punjab, mainly to fulfil his ancestor Timur's legacy, since it used to be part of his empire. At the time parts of north India was under the rule of Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, but the empire was crumbling and there were many defectors. He received invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab and Ala-ud-Din, uncle of Ibrahim. He sent an ambassador to Ibrahim, claiming himself the rightful heir to the throne of the country, however the ambassador was detained at Lahore and released months later. Babur started for Lahore, Punjab, in 1524 but found that Daulat Khan Lodi had been driven out by forces sent by Ibrahim Lodi.[8] When Babur arrived at Lahore, the Lodi army marched out and his army was routed.[8] In response, Babur burned Lahore for two days, then marched to Dipalpur, placing Alam Khan, another rebel uncle of Lodi's, as governor. Alam Khan was quickly overthrown and fled to Kabul. In response, Babur supplied Alam Khan with troops who later joined up with Daulat Khan Lodi and together with about 30,000 troops, they besieged Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi. He defeated them and drove off Alam's army and Babur realized Lodi would not allow him to occupy the Punjab. Battle Hearing of the size of Ibrahim's army, Babur secured his right flank against the city of Panipat, while digging a trench covered with tree branches to secure his left flank. In the center, he placed 700 carts tied together with ropes. Between every two carts there were breastworks for his matchlockmen. Babur also ensured there was enough space for his cavalry to charge between these carts. 39 | P a g e
When Ibrahim's army arrived, he found the approach to Babur's army too narrow to attack. While Ibrahim redeployed his forces to allow for the narrower front, Babur quickly took advantage of the situation to flank (tulghuma) the Lodi army. Many of Ibrahim's troops, were unable to get into action and as the battle turned against Ibrahim, they fled.[10] Faced with musket fire, cannon fire and cavalry attacks from all sides, Ibrahim Lodi fought and died with 6,000 of his remaining troops.
Babur's guns proved decisive in battle, firstly because Ibrahim Lodi lacked any field artillery, but also because the sound of the cannon frightened Lodi's elephants, causing them to trample Lodi's own men. Tactics New tactics introduced by Babur were the tulghuma and the araba. Tulghuma meant dividing the whole army into various units, viz. the Left, the Right and the Centre. The Left and Right divisions were further subdivided into Forward and Rear divisions. Through this a small army could be used to surround the enemy from all the sides. The Centre Forward division was then provided with carts (araba) which were placed in rows facing the enemy and tied to each other with animal hide ropes. Behind them were placed cannons protected and supported by mantlets which could be used to easily maneuver the cannons. These two tactics made Babur's artillery lethal. The cannons could be fired without any fear of being hit, as they were shielded by the bullock carts held in place by hide ropes. The heavy cannons could also be easily traversed onto new targets, as they could be maneuvered by the mantlets which were on wheels. Aftermath Ibrahim Lodi died on the field of battle along with 15,000 of his troops. Vikramajit, ruler of Gwaliyar, was killed as well. The battle of Panipat was militarily a decisive victory. Politically it gained Babur little, and initiated a new phase of his establishment of the Mughal empire.
On January 24, 1556, the Mughal Emperor Humayun died in Delhi and was succeeded by his son, Akbar. Akbar was only thirteen years old. On February 14, 1556, Akbar was enthroned at Kalanaur, in Punjab. At this time, Mughal rule was confined to Kabul, Kandahar, parts of the Delhi region and Punjab. Akbar had been campaigning at Kabul with his guardian, Bairam Khan. Hemu had become the ruler of North India after he defeated Akbar's army in the Battle of Delhi in 1556. Earlier Hemu had acted as Prime Minister-cum-Chief of Army of 40 | P a g e
Afghan ruler Adil Shah. He was a Hindu from Rewari in present day Haryana. Hemu had won 22 battles as Prime Minister-cum-Chief of Army during 1553-1556, from Punjab to Bengal. At the time of Humayun's death in January 1556, Hemu had just quelled a rebellion in Bengal, killing the Bengal ruler Muhammad Shah in the war. When he heard of Humayun's death, he told his commanders he would seize the Delhi throne for himself. He then launched an open rebellion, winning battles throughout northern India. When he attacked Agra, the commander of Akbar's forces there fled without fighting. Hemu gained control of Etawah, Kalpi, and Agra provinces, comprising present day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. At Gwalior, Hemu consolidated his army by recruiting more Hindus. Hemu defeated the Mughal army on 6 October in the Battle of Delhi (near Tughlaqabad). Around 3,000 Mughals were killed, and Mughal commander Tardi Beg fled with the survivors, leaving Delhi to Hemu. The next day, Hemu was crowned at Purana Qila fortress, re-establishing Hindu rule in north India, after 350 years of Muslim rule. According to Abul Fazl in Akbarnama, Hemu was preparing for an attack on Kabul and made several changes in his army. The fall of Delhi and Agra to Hemu and the defeat of the Mughal commander Tardi Beg Khan disturbed the Mughals at Kalanaur. Many Mughal generals advised Akbar to retreat to Kabul, rather than challenge Hemu larger forces. but Bairam Khan decided in favor of war. Akbar's army marched towards Delhi. On November 5, the armies met at the historic battlefield of Panipat, where, thirty years earlier, Akbar's grandfather Babur had defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat. H. G. Keene writes; "Akbar and his guardian Bairam Khan did not participate in the battle and were stationed 5 Koss (8 miles) away from the war zone. Bairam Khan did not permit the 13- year-old child King to be present on the battlefield in person. Instead he was provided with a special guard of 5,000 well trained and most faithful troops and was stationed at a safe distance far behind the battle lines. He was instructed by Bairam Khan to flee towards Kabul for life in case the Mughal Army was routed in the battlefield."
The Mughal Empire's army consisted of 10,000 cavalry with its centre was under the command of Shah Ali Quli Khan. Lal Khan of Badakshan led the light cavalry to attack Hemu's positions. The Mughal Army's vanguard was led by Muhammad Qasim (Mughal)'s brigade consisted of Mounted archers and the regular cavalry of Abdulla Khan (Mughal) and Iskander Khan. Hemu enticed the Mughal army's left and right wings by inducing a retreat on his flanks. Shah Ali Quli Khan learned of this trick from Tardi Beg Khan and dug a trench to protect the Mughal Army's center. But Hemu's War elephants crossed the trench and caused panic in the Mughal Army's centre. 41 | P a g e
A Mughal archer shot an arrow that pierced the eye of Hemu rendering him unconscious and in agony, Shah Ali Quli Khan isolated the elephant and captured Hemu.
The wounded Hemu was captured by Shah Quli Khan and carried to the Mughal camp. According to Badayuni, Bairam Khan asked Akbar to behead Hemu so that he could earn the title of Ghazi. Akbar replied 'He is already dead, if he had any strength for a duel, I would have killed him'. After Akbar's refusal Hemu's body was denied honour by the Mughal battle tradition and was unceremoniously beheaded by Bairam Khan. Hemu's head was sent to Kabul where it was hung outside the Delhi Darwaza while his body was placed in a gibbet outside Purana Quila in Delhi. After Hemu's death, a massacre of Hemu's community and followers was ordered by Bairam Khan. Thousands were beheaded and towers of skulls were built with their heads, to instill terror among the Hindus and Afghans. These towers were still in existence about 60 years later as described by Peter Mundy, an English traveler who visited India during the time of Jahangir. Sikandar Khan Uzbeg commanded the Mughal Army reserve which included the contingent of Mulla Pir Muhammad, who would reassert Mughal rule in Delhi. Aftermath Despite Hemu's numbers, Akbar's force won the battle. Hemu was captured and beheaded. His skull was sent to Kabul for display outside the 'Delhi Darwaza.[citation needed] His torso was sent to Delhi and hanged outside Purana Quila on a "gibbet: to intimidate the Hindu population. Hemu's wife escaped from Purana Qila, with the treasures of the fortress, and remained untraceble. Bairam Khan ordered mass executions of Hindus which continued for many years. Hemu's relatives and close Afghan supporters were caught and many of them beheaded. Minarets were made of their skulls at different places. Hemu's 82-year-old father who had escaped to Alwar was traced after six months, and was beheaded for refusing to convert to Islam. Akbar retook Agra and Delhi without much resistance.[citation needed] But soon after he took possession of his capital, he had to return to Punjab to meet the advance of Sikandar Shah Suri (Adil Shah Suri ‘s brother). Sikandar Shah was defeated and taken captive after the siege of Fort Mankot by Mughal forces and exiled to Bengal.[citation needed] The victory of Akbar at Panipat in 1556 was the real restoration of the Mughal power in India. It took Akbar eight years to capture the territory which was occupied by Hemu up to Bengal. Third Battle of Panipat Background ―
Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on this side of Attock are ‖
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under our rule for the most part, and places which have not come under our rule we shall soon bring under us. Ahmad Shah Durrani's son Timur Shah Durrani and Jahan Khan have been pursued by our troops, and their troops completely looted. Both of them have now reached Peshawar with a few broken troops... So Ahmad Shah Durrani has returned to Kandahar with some 12-14 thousand broken troops.. Thus all have risen against Ahmad who has lost control over the region. We have decided to extend our rule up to Kandahar. – Raghunathrao's letter to the Peshwa, 4 May 1758 Decline of Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire had been in decline since the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 due to rise of Marathas. The decline was accelerated by the invasion of India by Nader Shah in 1739 during the rule of Muhammad Shah who ruled from 1719-1748. Nader Shah also took away Takht-i-Taus (the peacock throne) and the Kohinoor Diamond. Continued rebellions by the Marathas in the south, and the de facto separation of a number of states (including Hyderabad and Bengal), weakened the state further. Within a few years of Aurangzeb's death, the Marathas had reversed all his territorial gains in the Deccan and had conquered almost all Mughal territory in central and northern India. Mughals had thus become just the titular heads of Delhi. At the same time Punjab saw frequent invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali, the great Punjabi poet Baba Waris Shah said of the situation, "khada peeta wahy da, baqi Ahmad Shahy da"--"we have nothing with us except what we eat and wear, all other things are for Ahmad Shah". Abdali appointed his son, Timur Shah Durrani, as his governor in Punjab and Kashmir. In 1758 the Maratha Empire's Gen. Raghunathrao marched onwards, attacked and conquered Lahore and Peshawar and drove out Timur Shah Durrani. Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the south and eastern side of Peshawar were under the Maratha rule for the most part. In Punjab and Kashmir the Marathas were now major players.
The Marathas had gained control of a considerable part of India in the intervening period (1707 – 1757). In 1758 they occupied Delhi, captured Lahore and drove out Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of the Afghan ruler, Ahmad Shah Abdali. This was the high-water mark of the Maratha expansion, where the boundaries of their empire extended in the north to the Indus and the Himalayas, and in the south nearly to the extremity of the peninsula. This territory was ruled through the Peshwa, who talked of placing his son Vishwasrao on the Mughal throne. However, Delhi still remained under the nominal control of Mughals, key Muslim intellectuals including Shah Waliullah and other Muslim clergy in India who were alarmed at these developments. In desperation they appealed to Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan, to halt the threat.
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surmounted by large gilded ornaments, conspicuous at a distance... Vast numbers of elephants, flags of all descriptions, the finest horses, magnificently caparisoned ... seemed to be collected from every quarter ... it was an imitation of the more becoming and tasteful array of the Mughuls in the zenith of their glory." – Grant Duff, describing the Maratha army. ‖
Ahmad Shah Durrani (Ahmad Shah Abdali), angered by the news from his son and his allies, was unwilling to allow the Marathas' spread go unchecked. By the end of 1759 Abdali with his Afghan tribes and his Rohilla ally Najib Khan had reached Lahore as well as Delhi and defeated the smaller enemy garrisons. Ahmed Shah, at this point, withdrew his army to Anupshahr, on the frontier of the Rohilla country, where he successfully convinced the Nawab of Oudh Shuja-ud-Daula to join his alliance against the Marathas — in spite of the Marathas time and again helping and showing sympathy towards Shuja-ud- daula. The Nawab‘s mother was of the opinion that he should join the Marathas. The Marathas had helped Safdarjung (father of Shuja) in defeating Rohillas in Farrukhabad. However, Shuja was very much ill-treated in the Abdali camp. Abdali was an Afghan Sunni Muslim and Shuja was a Persian Shia Muslim. The Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau (referred to as the Bhau or Bhao in sources) responded to the news of the Afghans' return to North India by raising a big army, and they marched North. Bhau's force was bolstered by some Maratha forces under Holkar, Scindia, Gaikwad and Govind Pant Bundele. Suraj Mal, the Jat ruler of Bharatpur, also had joined Bhausaheb but left midway. This combined army of over 100,000 regular troops captured the Mughal capital, Delhi, from an Afghan garrison in December 1759. Delhi had been reduced to ashes many times due to previous invasions, and in addition there being acute shortage of supplies in the Maratha camp. Bhau ordered the sacking of the already depopulated city. He is said to have planned to place his nephew and the Peshwa's son, Vishwasrao, on the Mughal throne. The Jats did not support the Marathas. Their withdrawal from the ensuing battle was to play a crucial role in its result. Abdali drew first blood by attacking a small Maratha army led by Dattaji Shinde at Murari Ghat. Dattaji fought with characteristic Maratha valour but was soon defeated and killed by Abdali‘s troops.
With both sides poised for battle, there followed much maneuvering, with skirmishes between the two armies fought at Karnal and Kunjpura. Kunjpura, on the banks of the Yamuna River 60 miles to the north of Delhi, was stormed by the Marathas and the whole Afghan garrison was killed or enslaved. Marathas achieved a rather easy victory at Kunjpura, although there was a substantial army posted there. Some of Abadali's best generals were killed. Ahmad Shah was encamped on the left bank of the Yamuna River, which was swollen by rains, and was powerless to aid the garrison. The
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massacre of the Kunjpura garrison, within sight of the Durrani camp, exasperated him to such an extent that he ordered crossing of the river at all costs. Ahmed Shah and his allies on 17 October 1760, broke up from Shahdara, marching south. Taking a calculated risk, Abdali plunged into the river, followed by his bodyguards and troops. Between 23 and 25 October they were able to cross at Baghpat(a small town about 24 miles up the river), as a man from the village, in exchange for money, showed Abdali a way through Yamuna, from where the river could be crossed, unopposed by the Marathas who were still preoccupied with the sacking of Kunjpura. After the Marathas failed to prevent Abdali's forces from crossing the Yamuna River, they set up defensive works in the ground near Panipat, thereby blocking his access back to Afghanistan, just as his forces blocked theirs to the south. However, on the afternoon of 26 October Ahmad Shah's advance guard reached Sambalka, about halfway between Sonepat and Panipat, where they encountered the vanguard of the Marathas. A fierce skirmish ensued, in which the Afghans lost 1000 men killed and wounded but drove the Marathas back to their main body, which kept retreating slowly for several days. This led to the partial encirclement of the Maratha army. In skirmishes that followed, Govind Pant Bundele, with 10,000 ligh t cavalry who weren‘t formally trained soldiers, was on a foraging mission with about 500 men. They were surprised by an Afghan force near Meerut, and in the ensuing fight Bundele was killed. This was followed by the loss of another 2,000 Maratha soldiers who were delivering the army's payroll from Delhi. This completed the encirclement, as Ahmad Shah had cut off the Maratha army's supply lines. With supplies and stores dwindling, tensions rose in the Maratha camp as the mercenaries in their army were complaining about not being paid. Initially the Marathas moved in almost 150 pieces of modern long-range, French-made artillery. With a range of several kilometres, these guns were some of the best of the time. The Marathas' plan was to lure the Afghan army to confront them while they had close artillery support.
During the next two months of the siege constant skirmishes and duels took place between units and individual champions from either side. In one of these Najib lost 3,000 of his Rohillas and was very nearly killed but ran away. Facing a potential stalemate, Abdali decided to seek terms, which Bhau was willing to consider. However, Najib Khan delayed any chance of an agreement with an appeal on religious grounds and sowed doubt about whether the Marathas would honour any agreement. After the Marathas moved from Kunjpura to Panipat, Diler Khan Marwat, with his father Alam Khan Marwat and a force of 2500 Pashtuns, attacked and took control of Kunjpura, where there was a Maratha garrison of 700 – 800 soldiers. At that time Atai Khan Baluch, son of the Wazir of Abdali, came from Afghanistan with 10,000 cavalry and cut off the supplies to the Marathas. The Marathas at Panipat were surrounded by Abdali in the south, Pashtun Tribes (Yousuf Zai, Afridi, Khattak) in the east, Shuja, Atai Khan and others in the north and other Pashtun tribes (Gandapur, Marwat, Durranis and |
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