Ministry of higher and secondary special education uzbekistan state university of world languages department of theoretical sciences of english language

Phones and allophones
Phonemes are abstractions or types of sounds ("in the mind"). There are different versions of this type of sound that is usually produced in actual speech ("in the mouth"). We can describe these different versions as phones. The phone is the phonetic unit and appears in square brackets. When we have a group of many phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we add the prefix 'allo-' (= a closely related set) and call them homonyms of that phoneme. ¹
For example, the sounds we've marked as [p] actually have many different forms in English. One of these types, denoted by [ph], appears in words like pill and peace. This p sound is produced with a flow of air called suction. When pronouncing another major p sound, denoted by [p·], there is little or no echo; This sound occurs in such a word as overflow. The third major p, denoted [pˉ], is a new p that can appear at the end of a word like stop. To deal with these p sounds, linguists suggest the existence of an abstract p, which they call the phoneme /p/. (When referring to phonemes, slashes are used). A phoneme has been defined as an abstract phonological unit representing a class of real sounds, called the phonemes of a phoneme. Therefore, /p/ in English is represented by the homonyms [ph], [p ] and [pˉ] representing the p sounds in pill, pour and stop.

Let's take another example. The [t] sound in tar is usually pronounced with a stronger air current than the sound in star. If you put the back of your hand in front of your mouth while pronouncing tar and star, you should be able to feel the physical evidence of the breath (breath) that accompanies the [t] sound at the beginning of tar, (but that's okay ). This aspirated version is more accurately represented by [t]. It's a phone. In the pronunciation of a word like eight [et], the effect of the last syllable
The sound causes tooth pronunciation of the sound [t]. This can be more precisely represented by [t]. It's another phone. Since these variants are all part of the telephone set, they are often referred to as homonyms of the /t/ phoneme, as shown in the following diagram:

English phonology is the system of speech sounds used in spoken English. Like many other languages, English has many variations in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the regional dialects of English share a similar (but not identical) phonemic system. Among other things, most dialects have reduced vowels in unstressed syllables and a complex set of phonological features that distinguish fortis and lenis consonants (stops, links, and frictions).

Phonological analysis of English often focuses on or uses, as a reference point, one or more prestige or standard accents, such as Acknowledged Pronunciation for Britain, American General for the United States, and Australian General for Australia. However, many other dialects of spoken English have evolved independently of these standardized accents, especially regional dialects. This information on standardized accents acts only as a limited guide to all English phonology, which one can expand on later when familiar with some of the other dialects of English spoken.
The phoneme of a language or dialect is an abstraction of a speech sound or a group of different sounds that are all considered by speakers of that particular language or dialect to have the same function. . For example, the English word through consists of three phonemes: the initial "th", the "r" sound, and a vowel. The phonemes of this and many other English words do not always directly correspond to the letters used to spell them (English spelling is not as phonetic as it is in many other languages). The number and distribution of phonemes in English varies between dialects and also depends on the individual researcher's interpretation. The number of consonant phonemes is usually set at 24 (or a little more depending on the dialect).
The number of vowels can vary more; In the system presented on this page, there are 20–25 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation, 14–16 in General American and 19–21 in Australian English. Pronunciation keys used in dictionaries often contain a slightly larger number of symbols than this, to account for some of the sounds used in foreign words and some notable differences. which could - strictly speaking - be phonemes. ²
The following table shows the 24 consonant phonemes found in most dialects of English, plus /x/, which has a more limited distribution. Fortis consonants are always voiceless, aspirated at the beginning of a syllable (except in clusters beginning with /s/), and sometimes also to some degree pharyngeal coda of the syllable (very likely. can occur with /t/, see phoneticization in the letter T), while lenis consonants are always unbreathed and unpronounced, and are often partially or fully pronounced.

Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m^[a]		n^[a]			ŋ
Plosive/ affricate	fortis	p		t	tʃ		k
	lenis	b		d	dʒ		ɡ
Fricative	fortis	f	θ^[b]	s	ʃ		(x)^[c]	h^[d]
	lenis	v	ð^[b]	z	ʒ
Approximant				l^[a]	r^[e]	j^[f]	w^[g]

The alveoli are usually apex, i.e., when the tip of the tongue touches or touches the roof of the mouth, although some speakers pronounce them in layers, i.e. with the edge of the language. Some varieties of English have syllable consonants in certain words, mainly [l̩, m̩, n̩], for example at the end of a bottle, rhythm, and button. In such cases, no phonetic vowel is pronounced between the two final consonants, and the final consonant constitutes a syllable on its own. Syllable consonants are usually transcribed with a vertical line below the consonant's letter, so the transcriptions of bottle and button in GA would be [ˈbɑɾl̩] and [ˈbʌʔn̩]. In theory, these consonants can be analyzed as individual phonemes. However, this would add some additional consonant phonemes to the stock of English, and phonologists prefer to phonetically identify nasal sounds and syllabic fluids as /əC/. Thus, the button is transliterated as /ˈbʌtən/ or /ˈbatən/ and chai as /ˈbɒtəl/, /ˈbɑtəl/ or /ˈbɔtəl/. /θ, ð/ are considered stops in accents affected by the minor stop, such as Hiberno English, New York accent, and South Asian English. They are combined with /f, v/ in minor accents, like some variants of Cockney and African-American English. See the English pronunciation of ⟨th⟩. The voiceless velar /x/ is used mainly in Hiberno English, Scots, Afrikaans and Welsh; Words with /x/ in a Scottish accent tend to be pronounced /k/ in other dialects. Velar friction sometimes appears in recent loanwords such as chutzpah. Under the influence of Welsh and Afrikaans, the actual phonetic perception of /x/ in Welsh English and Caucasian Afrikaans was a uvula [χ], not a velar [x]. Dialects do not necessarily agree on the exact words where /x/ appears; for example, in Welsh English it occurs in Welsh loanwords (such as Amlwch /ˈæmlʊx/), while in Caucasian Afrikaans it occurs only in loanwords. Afrikaans or Xhosa (such as gogga /ˈxɒxə/ 'insect').

This sound may not be a phoneme in the H-dropping dialects. This phoneme is classically transcribed using the basic Latin letter ⟨r⟩ (the IPA symbol for alveolar vibrato), although its pronunciation is usually a post-veolar approximation [ɹ̠]. Trill exists but is very rare, being found only in some Scottish, Welsh, South African and Indian dialects. See how to pronounce /r/ in English.
Vocabulary stress is phonetic in English. For example, the increasing part of a noun and the increasing part of a verb are distinguished by placing stress on the first syllable in the first syllable and on the second syllable in the second syllable. (See name derived from initial stress.) Stressed syllables in English are louder than unstressed syllables, and are also longer and have more pitch.
According to the traditional approach, in any English word consisting of more than one syllable, each syllable is assigned one of three levels of stress: major, minor, or unstressed. Usually in each of these words there will be exactly one main stressed syllable, possibly one syllable with minor stress and the rest unstressed (unusually long words can have many stressed syllables). extra). For example, the word unbelievable has primary stress on the second syllable, while the first and third syllables are unstressed, while the word organize has primary stress on the fourth syllable, minor stress on the first, second, third and fifth syllables are not stressed. . . This is usually indicated in pronunciation keys using the IPA symbols for the major and minor stress ( là and ˌ respectively), placed before the syllables to which they apply. Thus, the two words just given can be expressed (in RP) by /əˈmeɪzɪŋ/ and /ˌɔːɡənaɪˈzeɪʃən/.
Some analysts identify an additional stress level (third degree stress). This is generally thought to be because syllables are pronounced lighter than those with minor stress, but still contain "full" or "unreduced" vowels (vowels considered reduced are listed below). according to English phonology § unstressed syllables above). Thus, the third organizer syllable, if pronounced with /aɪ/ as illustrated above (rather than shortened to /ɪ/ or /ə/), can be considered third stressed. . (The exact determination of secondary and tertiary stress varies among analyses; dictionaries generally do not indicate third stress, although some have taken the approach of marking all vowel syllables.) unmodified sound has at least one minor stress.)
In certain analyses, the concept of lexical stress may therefore be confused with the concept of vowel reduction. Peter Ladefoged has provided an approach that tries to separate the two, saying that it is possible to describe English with a single stress level, as long as the unstressed syllables are phonetically distinguished to shorten vowels. In this approach, the difference between major stress and minor stress is considered a phonetic or intonation detail rather than a phonetic feature - major stress is considered an example of stress. "tonic" predictably falls on the last stressed syllable of an intonation unit. . For more details on this analysis, see Stress reduction and vowel reduction in English. ³
For stress as a feature of tone (stress of specific words in speech), see § Tonal stress below. Phonotactics is the study of the sequences of phonemes that occur in languages and the sound structures that they form. In this study it is usual to represent consonants in general with the letter C and vowels with the letter V, so that a syllable such as 'be' is described as having CV structure. The IPA symbol used to show a division between syllables is the full stop ⟨.⟩. Syllabification is the process of dividing continuous speech into discrete syllables, a process in which the position of a syllable division is not always easy to decide upon.
Most languages of the world syllabify CVCV and CVCCV sequences as /CV.CV/ and /CVC.CV/ or /CV.CCV/, with consonants preferentially acting as the onset of a syllable containing the following vowel. From one perspective, English is unusual in this respect, in that stressed syllables attract subsequent consonants, so that ˈCVCV and ˈCVCCV can turn into syllables /ˈCVC.V/ and /ˈCVCC .V/, as long as there can be clusters of CC consonants. syllable coda; furthermore, /r/ favors the chord with the preceding vowel even when both syllables are unstressed, so CVrV appears as /CVr.V/. This is the analysis used in Longman's pronunciation dictionary. However, this view is not widely accepted, as explained in the next section.