On phenomena in ionized gases
Experimental setup and diagnostic methods
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- 3. Results and discussion
- Calculation of electron velocity distribution function under crossed electric and magnetic fields using a propagator method
- 2. Field model and PM configuration
- 4. Summary
- Acknowledgement
- Gliding arc plasmatron for CO 2 splitting: A chemical kinetics modelling perspective
- Internal Pressure Rise due to Arc under Insulating Oil in a Closed Vessel -Fundamental Examination for Oil-filled Power Equipment
2. Experimental setup and diagnostic methods The experimental setup consists of a cylindrical discharge chamber with a height of 10 cm and a diameter of 15 cm. The planar solenoid which is connected to the RF generator (2 MHz, P max
= 2 kW) via a matching network is placed on top of the vessel. It is separated from the discharge by a quartz plate serving as dielectric window. Two different quartz plates can be installed: the first one has a thickness of 20 mm in order to withstand atmo- spheric pressure. This allows operating the solenoid in ambient air what is the standard setup of planar ICP’s. In the second setup, the thickness of the quartz plate is reduced to 3 mm. As this plate cannot withstand atmospheric pressure, the coil is placed in an additional vacuum chamber. Plasma parameters are obtained from a movable Langmuir probe and optical emission spectroscopy. The RF power delivered by the generator to the load is determined with an in-line V-I probe. An RF current transformer measures the RF current running through the plasma coil. With these quantities, the coupling efficiency can be calculated [2]. It should be noted that impedance matching of the load to 50 is always perfectly achieved for the present- ed measurements (i.e. P reflected = 0 W) by adjusting the variable capacitors in the matching unit.
The measurements show that the RF coupling efficiency increases in general with higher RF power. At varying pressure, exhibits a broad max- imum between 3 and 5 Pa. These relative behaviours are also typical for ICPs operated with rare gases and can be explained with the variation of the elec- tron density due to the change of RF power and with the change of the effective collision frequency of the plasma electrons at varying gas pressure [1, 2]. Installing the thin quartz plate increases the coupling efficiency significantly from around 45% to 70% at 5 Pa. The RF field magnitude drops rapidly with increasing distance from the coil. Therefore, much higher RF fields reach the plasma with a thin dielectric window what is beneficial for the coupling. In a next step, the influence of the RF frequency on is going to be investigated.
The authors would like to thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for their support within the project BR 4904/1-1.
[1] E. A. Kral’kina, Physics – Uspekhi 51, 493 – 512 (2008). [2] J. Hopwood, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 3, 460 – 464 (1994). 9 112
XXXIII ICPIG, July 9-14, 2017, Estoril/Lisbon, Portugal
Calculation of electron velocity distribution function under crossed electric and magnetic fields using a propagator method
H. Sugawara P
Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
A propagator method (PM) to calculate the Boltzmann equation (BE) for the electron velocity distribution function (EVDF) in gas was extended for that under crossed electric and magnetic (E ×B) fields. Three-variable velocity space was divided into cells and the number of electrons in each cell was calculated with a three-dimensional memory array. The propagators to operate the intercellular electron transfers due to acceleration and collisional scattering were customized for the cell configuration and the electron acceleration particular to the E ×B fields. Equilibrium EVDFs at some E/N and B/N values were obtained using a numerical relaxation scheme, and electron transport parameters derived from the EVDFs agreed with those obtained by a Monte Carlo (MC) simulation.
In a PM [1] to solve the BE for the EVDF, velocity space is divided into cells and the number of electrons in each cell is calculated. While the EVDF under a dc
symmetry, that under E ×B fields is three-variable. Its calculation requires a huge memory capacity and the computational load is heavy. It was recent that computers became capable of such calculations. A prototype PM code for the EVDF under E ×B fields was composed with customized propagators (Green's functions) to deal with intercellular electron transfers due to acceleration and collisional scattering. This report presents results of benchmark calculations.
In three-variable velocity space ( v,
θ, φ) related to velocity
,
v y ,
v z ) as
v x =
v
sin θ
cos φ, v y =
v
cos θ and
v z =
v
sin θ
sin φ under E = (0,
0, −E) (E
>
0) and B = (0,
B,
0), the (i, j,
of
−1
≤ v < v i , (j
−
1) Δθ ≤ θ < jΔθ and (k
−
1) Δφ ≤ φ < k Δφ. Here, v i =
v 1eV
(i Δε/ε
1eV ) 1/2 , v 1eV
is the electron speed associated with 1
eV and
ε 1eV
= 1
eV. Desirable resolution depends on gas medium, E/N and B/N, where N is the gas molecule number density. The present PM adopted Δε = 0.01
eV for 0
−100
eV, Δθ = π/90 and Δφ = 2π/360 for SF 6 at N = 10 22
m −3 .
Electron acceleration a = (a x ,
a y ,
a z ) = d
v/dt = (d
x /dt,
d
y /dt,
d
z /dt) by the E ×B fields is dependent on
v as a x = (e/m) v z B, a y = 0 and a z = (e/m)(E −
v x B), where e and m are the electronic charge and mass, respectively. a is rotational around an axis in velocity space. The intercellular electron transfer due to a was evaluated as the integral of Γ⋅n over a cell surface, through which electrons move to the downstream neighbour cells. Here, Γ and n are the electron flux and the normal vector at the cell surface, respectively. The collision propagator represents discontinuous changes of v and θ at scatterings. Isotropic scattering was assumed for the collision propagator. The EVDF was relaxed from a Maxwellian by applying the propagators to the EVDF using a numerical scheme like the Gauss −Seidel method. Components v
and v x of the average electron velocity under the Hall deflection were derived and compared with those obtained by MC simulations.
Table 1 shows MC and PM results of v
and v x in SF 6 at E/N = 100 −500
Td = 10
−21
Vm 2 ) and
B/N = 100 −500
Hx (1
Hx = 10
−27
Tm 3 ). They agree with each other within discrepancies of a few percent.
A basic calculation scheme of the PM for EVDFs under E ×B fields was established. Improvement of the precision via adjustment of resolution and further extension of the PM to real-space electron transport parameters are considered as succeeding work.
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP16K05626.
[1] H. Sugawara, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. (2017) (at press) doi: 10.1088/1361-6595/aa5d7f . Topic number 5
v z , v x ) (10
4 m s
−1 ) of the average electron velocity under the Hall deflection:
, component of the −E direction; and v
, component of the E ×B direction.
Method 100 Hx 200 Hx
500 Hx 100 Td
MC PM
(6.39, 0.44) (6.37, 0.43) (6.30, 0.86) (6.29, 0.86) (5.79, 1.99) (5.76, 1.96) 200 Td MC
PM (11.44, 0.68) (11.42, 0.69) (11.31, 1.36) (11.31, 1.37) (10.59, 3.21) (10.57, 3.22) 500 Td
MC PM
(23.89, 1.19) (23.90, 1.20) (23.71, 2.36) (23.74, 2.38) (22.68, 5.74) (22.68, 5.74) 113
XXXIII ICPIG, July 9-14, 2017, Estoril/Lisbon, Portugal
Gliding arc plasmatron for CO 2 splitting: A chemical kinetics modelling perspective
S. Heijkers 1 , M. Ramakers 1 , M G. Trenchev P 1 P , A. Berthelot 1 , A. Bogaerts 1 P
P
P
Experiments show that the gliding arc plasmatron (GAP) has significant potential to split CO 2 in an energy efficient way. However, a detailed description of the most important chemical pathways in this type of reactor has not been elucidated yet. We therefore present a detailed chemical kinetics model for CO 2 in a GAP. The model results, such as CO 2 conversion and the resulting energy efficiency, are in very good agreement with experimental data, for different values of specific energy input. Both the model and experiments show that the obtained energy efficiency is quite promising (>20%) due to energy efficient vibration induced dissociation.
Plasma technologies for converting CO 2 into value- added chemicals in an energy efficient way and at atmospheric pressure are highly wanted. The gliding arc discharge is one of these possible candidates [1]
. A 0D kinetic model for the conventional gliding arc for pure CO 2 has therefore already been developed [2]
. A significant amount of gas, however, passes the plasma without any conversion in the conventional configuration and the high current density causes strong electrode degradation [3] . To
tackle these issues, reverse vortex flow stabilization was introduced [1],[3] . To the authors’ knowledge, a full kinetic study of the GAP for pure CO 2 has not yet been conducted, which is thus presented here. 2. Methodology We used a 0D chemical kinetics model, called ZDPlaskin [4]
with the built-in Boltzmann solver, BOLSIG+
[5] . The chemistry set is based on the original work of Kozak et al. [6]
in which vibrational excitation till the dissociation limit of CO 2 is taken into account, and was recently updated by Koelman et al
[7] . The dissociation cross section used in this study is the one proposed by Phelps, with 7eV threshold, suggested by Bogaerts et al. [8] .
3. Results In Figure 1, we show the calculated CO 2 conversion and energy efficiency. They are in very good agreement with the experimental results obtained by Ramakers et al. [9]
. Both in the model and experiments, energy efficiencies greater than or equal to 23% were obtained. This is attributed to the large contribution of vibration induced dissociation (> 70%), followed by electron impact dissociation.
2 conversion (left y-axis) and energy efficiency (right y-axis) as a function of the specific energy input (SEI). 3. References [1] T. Nunnally, K. Gutsol, A. Rabinovich, A. Fridman, A. Gutsol, and A. Kemoun, J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 274009. [2] S.R. Sun, H.X. Wang, D.H. Mei, X. Tu, and A. Bogaerts, J. CO2 Util. 17 (2016) 220. [3] C.S. Kalra, Y.I. Cho, A. Gutsol, A. Fridman, and T.S. Rufael, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76 (2005) 25110. [4] S. Pancheshnyi, B. Eismann, G.J.M. Hagelaar, and L.C. Pitchford (2008). [5] G.J.M. Hagelaar and L.C. Pitchford, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 14 (2005) 722. [6] T. Kozák and A. Bogaerts, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 23 (2014) 45004. [7] P. Koelman, S. Heijkers, S. Tadayon Mousavi, W. Graef, D. Mihailova, T. Kozak, A. Bogaerts, and J. van Dijk, Plasma Process. Polym. (2016). [8] A. Bogaerts, W. Wang, A. Berthelot, and V. Guerra, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 55016.
[9] M. Ramakers, G. Trenchev, S. Heijkers, W. Wang, and A. Bogaerts, Energy Environ. Sci. submitted (2017). Topic number: 5 114
XXXIII ICPIG, July 9-14, 2017, Estoril/Lisbon, Portugal
Mechanistic studies of H 2 production from H 2 O using a low power Al/Al 2 O
microplasma chip reactor
Z.S. Wiersma 1 , Z. Dai
2 , S.-J. Park 2 , J.G. Eden 2
1 Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA 2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Laboratory for Optical Physics and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
The transition to a H 2 -based energy economy is considered an important step towards the alleviation of fossil fuel environmental effects. The current work demonstrates that plasmachemical water reactions within microplasma channels produce significant H 2 . The mechanisms underlying these reactions are studied to optimize H 2 production efficiency. Chemical processes are characterized using a variety of gaseous measurement, optical characterization, and surface analysis techniques. The results demonstrate that the plasmachemical reactions deposit regular aluminium oxide and aluminium hydroxide structures along the walls of the microplasma channels. However, the electrical characteristics of the microplasma device are completely retained after more than 160 minutes of plasma reactions despite nanoparticle growth within the microchannels. Thus, microplasma chip reactors may have potential to aid the transition to a global H 2 economy. Hydrogen is an ideal fuel because of its ultra- high energy density, lack of harmful combustion byproducts, and availability in common sources like water. However, H 2 lacks global adoption as a fuel because virtually all H 2 is synthesized from fossil fuels through expensive and energy-intensive industrial processes such as methane steam reforming.[1] Alternatively, small amounts of hydrogen can be made on-demand through water electrolysis, but this process is similarly energy intensive, requires high electrolyte concentrations, and its non-specific reactions can produce harmful reaction byproducts. As an example of non- specificity, water electrolysis can emit chlorine gas when chloride ions are present in solution.[2] Despite these limitations, the numerous applications of on-demand H 2 fuel encourages research to produce it at low cost and high efficiency. Microplasmas are an emerging technology with promising potential for hydrogen production.[3] Microplasmas are micrometer-scale ionized gases. In contrast to traditional macroscale plasma apparatuses, microplasma chips use nanoporous materials with microscale channel dimensions to reduce dielectric breakdown voltages. These chips can operate at room temperature and pressure, and provide molecular excitation via weakly ionized nonthermal plasma.[4] Powers on the order of 1 W can excite nonthermal plasmas.[5] Microplasma chips can produce H 2 on-demand at high efficiency and specificity using H 2 O as fuel, as the current work demonstrates. The chips are modularly parallelizable, suggesting large amounts of H 2
have significant industrial potential.[6] On-site hydrogen sources are needed for a wide variety of energy applications including hydrogen filling stations, fuel cells, and hydrogen energy storage.[7] Efficient and low power production of H 2 from H 2 O would eliminate global dependence on fossil fuels. References [1] A. Iulianelli, S. Liguori, J. Wilcox, A. Basile, Cat. Rev., 58 (2016) 1-35. [2] G. Chisholm, L. Cronin, Storing Energy: with Special Reference to Renewable Energy Sources, (2016) 315. [3] C. Charles, Front.Phys., 2 (2014). [4] J. Eden, S.-J. Park, J. Cho, M. Kim, T. Houlahan, B. Li, E. Kim, T. Kim, S. Lee, K. Kim, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 41 (2013) 661-675. [5] K.H. Schoenbach, K. Becker, EPJ D, 70 (2016) 1-22. [6] O.K. Sung, J.G. Eden, IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., 17 (2005) 1543-1545. [7] A. Züttel, P. Mauron, S. Kato, E. Callini, M. Holzer, J. Huang, CHIMIA, 69 (2015) 264-268.
Topic number: 17 115 XXXIII ICPIG, July 9-14, 2017, Estoril/Lisbon, Portugal
Internal Pressure Rise due to Arc under Insulating Oil in a Closed Vessel -Fundamental Examination for Oil-filled Power Equipment-
T. Tadokoro P 1 P , U M. Kotari P 1 P , T. Ohtaka 1 1 P and M. Iwata P 1
P 1 P
P
When an arc fault occurs inside oil-filled equipment such as transformers in electric power systems, it heats the oil, thus generating flammable gas, and it causes dynamic increases in pressure, which can lead to a blowout. This paper reports a fundamental study on pressure rise due to an arc in a closed vessel containing air and oil. The pressure rises in the air and oil are measured under experimental conditions involving a 2.0-kA arc current, and 100-ms arc duration. The experimental results show that the arc decomposes surrounding oil to the flammable gas and the pressure oscillations vary in air and in oil. Our approximate pressure rise calculations considering oil flux are consistent with the experimental results.
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