The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
(Behe 1996, 39)
Most of his book is then given over to describing various biological systems that have this property of interlocking complexity, such as the human blood clotting cascade or immune system. In each case, several distinguishable parts work together to carry out some function, and if any one part is removed or damaged the system ceases to work. Behe is not humble regarding the conclusion of his argument: The result of these cumulative efforts to investigate the cell – to investigate life at the molecular level – is a loud, clear, piercing cry of “design!” The result is so unambiguous and so significant 2.5 irreducible complexity 41 that it must be ranked as one of the greatest achievements in the history of science. The discovery rivals those of Newton and Einstein, Lavoisier and Schrödinger, Pasteur and Darwin. (Behe 1996, 233) To better understand Behe’s argument, recall that evolutionists rely on the notion of stepping-stones to explain complex adaptations, where each stepping-stone represents a functional structure that could be preserved by natural selection. For example, we briefly mentioned a few of the likely stepping-stones involved in evolving an eye – starting with a light-sensitive spot, moving on to a spot with a small pocket, then an eye with a primitive lens, and so on – but each of those steps represented a functional structure. This is critical because natural selection only understands immediate reproductive success. It will not preserve a worthless structure in the hope that later mutations will transform it into something useful. Behe is arguing that when a system is irreducibly complex there are no stepping-stones. This is because at least some of those stones would have to be structures that were missing a part relative to the modern system, and they would therefore be nonfunctional. Natural selection would want nothing to do with them. He argues that since such a system could not have evolved gradually through functional intermediates, and since it could not have arisen fully formed just by chance, the only remaining option is intelligent design. Behe’s writing is cocky and full of swagger, but even before discussing the details we can be very skeptical of his argument. It is clever marketing to refer to these systems as “irreducibly complex.” A more accurate description is “easily broken,” and his argument could then be rephrased like this: “The prevalence of easily broken systems in nature is strong evidence of intelligent design.” In that form the argument is not terribly persuasive. We have noted that much of the anti-evolutionary discourse is based on analogies to human engineering. They argue that just as humans can build machines that we immediately recognize as having 42 2 evolution basics arisen from intelligence and not from natural causes, so too can we be certain that nature’s machines were designed by an engineer of vastly greater intelligence. However, irreducible complexity is more accurately seen as another instance of the senseless signs of history. Human engineers would not build a complex system in such a way that it fails catastrophically if the slightest thing goes wrong. If biology presented us with resilient systems complete with backups, fail-safes, and redundancies, then we might more naturally suspect intelligent design by a master engineer. In contrast, systems balanced on a knife-edge of functionality suggest something closer to a failing grade in a first-year engineering course. In the human context this is not a trivial concern. The fragility of some of Behe’s favorite examples, such as the human blood clotting cascade or the immune system, leads to tremendous human misery and misfortune. People who suffer from hemophilia have low levels of one or another of the factors needed to clot blood at the site of a wound, and because of this they live in terror of trivial injuries other people would shrug off. They might have appreciated a more resilient clotting system, one that does not fail when one part is a little sub par. Likewise, there are over eighty autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system for some reason attacks its own body, and I invite you to lecture the numerous victims of these diseases about the brilliance of the engineer responsible for it. It would seem, then, that if Behe’s argument has any force at all, it can only be because of his central claim – that an irreducibly complex system cannot arise in a stepwise manner through gradual evolution. If this claim is correct, then we might feel forced to the conclusion of intelligent design, the considerations of the last few paragraphs notwithstanding. However, the claim is plainly not true. A moment’s thought is sufficient to come up with scenarios through which an irreducibly complex system could arise gradually. For example, an interdependence of parts can arise through the removal of redundancy. A standard example is a stone arch. The arch 2.5 irreducible complexity 43 cannot support itself until the capstone is placed on top, and the capstone has nothing to rest on until the arch is complete. During con- struction a scaffolding supports the structure. When the scaffolding is removed, the result is an interdependence of the remaining parts. Applying Behe’s logic, we should look at the finished structure and conclude that it just appeared from nothing, fully formed, with no intermediate stages. Another possibility is that changes that are merely improve- ments at first can later become essential because the environment changes around them. Telephones were a luxury item when they were first introduced, but today they are considered so vital that most of us carry one with us everywhere we go. If the world’s telephones suddenly disappeared from the face of the earth, civilization as we know it would be very seriously compromised. The biological analog is that a mutation might initially confer some small advantage on its bearer, but later become essential as the environment changes, and other genes mutate, around it. It is also possible for numerous systems to evolve in tandem. A modern city can be viewed as irreducibly complex, with separate systems for transportation, power generation, waste removal, com- munications, banking, and others besides, and these systems can themselves be viewed as being composed of discrete parts. There are many components which, if they were suddenly knocked out, would quickly cause the city to effectively cease functioning, but there is no mystery to how the modern city arose gradually over long periods of time. Each of those modern systems originally existed in less effective, more rudimentary forms. Improvements in one system then led to improvements in others, with the result being the modern interdependence of parts. There is no reason in principle why an irreducibly complex biological system could not evolve by a similar process. These possibilities reveal a further problem with Behe’s logic. He seems to think that a complex system evolves by the sequential addition of discrete parts. Philosopher Philip Kitcher writes, specifi- 44 2 evolution basics cally using the example of the bacterial flagellum, frequently appealed to in ID literature: We are beguiled by the simple story line Behe rehearses. He invites us to consider the situation by supposing that the flagellum requires the introduction of some number – 20, say – of proteins that the ancestral bacterium doesn’t originally have. So Darwinians have to produce a sequence of 21 organisms, the first having none of the proteins, and each subsequent organism having one more than its predecessor. Darwin is forlorn because however he tries to imagine the possible pathway along which genetic changes successively appeared, he appreciates the plight of numbers 2-20, each of which is clogged with proteins that can’t serve any function, proteins that interfere with important cellular processes. These organisms will be targets of selection, and will wither in the struggle for existence. Only number 1, and number 21, in which all the protein constituents come together to form the flagellum, have what it takes. Because of the dreadful plight of the intermediates, natural selection couldn’t have brought the bacterium from there to here. The story is fantasy, and Darwinians should disavow any commitment to it. Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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