The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
S
≥ rev dQ T . (7.2) 7.3 the first two laws of thermodynamics 231 The expression dQ represents a small input of heat into the system, and the integral sign (the elongated S) indicates that we find the total entropy change by adding up the numerous small entropy changes that arise in various parts of the system as we go from the first to the second state. The “ ≥” sign means “greater than or equal to.” It turns out that the two sides are equal only in the context of a purely reversible process. Since perfect reversibility is an ideal to which any real heat engine can only aspire, we conclude that in any actual process the change in entropy will be greater than what is given by the right hand side. Equation 7.2 applies to any system, whether open, closed, or isolated. However, as with our discussion of the first law, the equation becomes easier to understand if we restrict our attention to an isolated system. In that case, neither matter nor energy are crossing the boundary. Therefore, the integral evaluates to 0, and the second law reduces to the statement that the change in entropy will be greater than 0, which is to say there will be more entropy at the end of the process than there was at the beginning. Hence the assertion that in an isolated system, entropy cannot spontaneously decrease. If the system is open, then there is the possibility that the integral on the right hand side evaluates to something negative. To say that the change in entropy is negative is to say that there is less entropy in the final state than there was in the initial state, which is to say the entropy has decreased. Thus, the second law allows for spontaneous entropy decreases in open systems, but even in such cases it precisely quantifies just how much of a decrease is possible. As we have said, in a typical thermodynamics textbook, equation 7.2 appears after a lengthy and difficult mathematical derivation. That level of technical detail is well beyond anything we will need for the discussions to come. However, it is worth taking a moment to understand, in general terms, why dividing heat by temperature is a plausible way of measuring entropy. Remember that with fractions, the bigger the top the bigger the fraction. On the bottom it is the reverse: the smaller the bottom the bigger the fraction. 232 7 thermodynamics Thus, for a fixed value of T, our formula says that a large influx of heat will increase the entropy more than a small influx of heat. If we think of entropy as a tendency for energy to become unavailable for work, then we are basically saying that an engine operating at high heat will burn itself out faster than an engine operating at low heat. Adding heat to the engine will accelerate the pace at which energy becomes unavailable for work, and that is why warming a system increases its entropy. On the other hand, what if we imagine keeping the top of the fraction constant and only varying the bottom? In that case, our formula says that a given quantity of heat will cause greater entropy increase if the system is at a low temperature than if it is at a high temperature. To see why this makes sense, it is simplest to think of entropy as a tendency toward disorder and then to argue by analogy. If you are in a silent library and you suddenly clap your hands, you will create a serious disturbance. The other library patrons will be very annoyed with you. But if you clap your hands on a busy street corner, probably no one will notice the small amount of extra noise. Alternatively, imagine that you light up a 40 Watt bulb in a dark room. The result is a dramatic increase in visibility. If you illuminate the same bulb in a room that is already brightly lit, then you will barely notice the extra light. Likewise, a small amount of heat added to a system at a low temperature is more disruptive than the same amount of heat added to a system at a high temperature. Now, the discussion of the last few paragraphs has been a bit technical. I promise I will not be using equation 7.2 to actually calculate anything, which is something I have in common with the anti-evolutionists whose work I will be criticizing. However, I felt it was important to spend some time dwelling on real thermodynamics, just so that we could better understand why the anti-evolutionist version is so hard to take seriously. The really important part of our discussion is not so much the mathematical expression itself, but rather the precision of the result. 7.4 statistical mechanics 233 The second law of thermodynamics is a precise mathematical state- ment that exactly quantifies what is possible and what is not. When this is understood, you realize why in serious scientific discourse, as opposed to casual conversation, it does not make sense to say that a proposed physical process appears to violate the second law. Either it does or it does not, and if you claim it does then it is on you to provide the calculation that shows that it does. In other words, show me that the process entails an entropy change that is smaller than what is required by equation 7.2. If you are not prepared to do so, then you are not making a serious argument and should not be talking about thermodynamics at all. 7.4 statistical mechanics Based on what I have said up to this point, you would never know that matter is made up of microscopic atoms. Instead, I have based my presentation on the macroscopic properties of matter, which we can define roughly as those properties that are visible and measurable to the naked eye. Since this presentation tracks well with how matter was classically viewed prior to the ascension of atomic theory in the nineteenth century, it is typically referred to as “classical thermodynamics.” If instead we take the view that any given bit of matter is a large assemblage of microscopic particles, we can gain some further insight into our thermodynamical principles. This leads to a branch of physics known as “statistical mechanics.” It involves “mechanics” in the sense that we are interested in the motions of particles, and it is “statistical” in the sense that we are not interested in the motion of any specific particle, but only in the average behavior of large ensembles of particles. To illustrate the main idea, it is customary to imagine a sealed box with a partition in the middle. We imagine that there is a gas on one side of the partition and vacuum on the other side. When we remove the partition, the gas molecules rush to fill the vacuum, and before long they are distributed evenly throughout the box. 234 7 thermodynamics It never happens that the evenly distributed gas molecules suddenly rush to one side of the box, leaving a vacuum on the other side. This is reminiscent of the macroscopic observation that heat only travels in one direction. The behavior of the gas molecules is readily understood in terms of probability. We can assume there are so many molecules moving and colliding in effectively random ways that any particular arrangement of the molecules is as likely as any other. Since there are vastly more arrangements in which the molecules are evenly distributed throughout the box than there are arrangements where all the molecules are found on one side, we are far more likely than not to find the molecules evenly distributed. Viewed in this way, we can say that the standard variables of classical thermodynamics arise as the result of the average behavior of large ensembles of particles. We can define the “microstate” of the gas to be the position and momentum of each individual molecule. We can contrast this with its “macrostate,” which is characterized by familiar variables like internal energy, pressure, volume, and tem- perature. The microstates in which the gas molecules are evenly dis- tributed all give rise to the same macrostate. Conversely, macrostates in which most of the energy is unavailable for work are consistent with many microstates, and that is why they are more likely to occur naturally than are macrostates with a lot of available energy, which are consistent with only a small number of microstates. We can also formulate a statistical notion of entropy, and the standard formula for doing this entails that increasing the number of microstates increases the entropy. Heating the gas increases the velocity of all the particles, making possible more vigorous collisions than before, and this increases the number of microstates available to the molecules. In this way, we can understand why heating a system increases its entropy. The second law can be understood as the statement that since microstates corresponding to disordered states of matter vastly outnumber microstates corresponding to ordered 7.4 statistical mechanics 235 states, disordered states are far more likely to occur naturally than ordered states. The statistical view provides insight into thermodynamics that is not available under the classical view. However, something has been lost as well. Viewed statistically, the second law is now a probabilistic statement about what is exceedingly likely to happen, as opposed to a precise mathematical statement of what will definitely happen. The statistical view is more modern, and it is more fundamental in the sense that we are explaining the behavior of macroscopic systems by referring to the collective behavior of the particles that compose them. It should not be thought, however, that the statistical view has somehow supplanted the classical view or has shown that the classical view is obsolete. Rather, the classical and statistical views are just two different approaches to the same problems, each useful in its own domain. H. C. Van Ness, a chemical engineer, provides an apt summary of their relationship: Statistical mechanics adds to thermodynamics on its theoretical side, as a means for or as an aid to the calculation of properties. The other half of thermodynamics, the applied half, benefits only from a wider availability of the data needed in the solution of engineering problems. … [I]t does provide, as thermodynamics does not, the means by which thermodynamic properties may be calculated whenever detailed descriptions of atomic and molecular behavior are provided from other studies, either theoretical or experimental. Thus statistical mechanics adds something very useful to thermodynamics, but it neither explains thermodynamics nor replaces it. Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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