The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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The Nature Fakers Controversy When introducing Seton’s work at the beginning of his article, Burroughs amends the title of Wild Animals I Have Known to “Wild Animals I ALONE Have Known” in order to “correspond with the facts” (129). He goes on to declare that: “Such dogs, wolves, foxes, rabbits, mustangs, crows as he has known, it is safe to say, no other person in the world has ever known. Fact and fiction are so Allmark-Kent 138 deftly blended in his work that only a r eal woodsman can separate them” (129). Again, it is noteworthy that Burroughs repeats that only a real woodsman can recognize Seton’s deception. Simultaneously, he validates the knowledge of the non-scientific expert, excludes the public from the category of ‘real’ woodsmen, and reasserts his own authority to identify both ‘sham’ naturalists and ‘sham’ natural history. He implies, more over, that any defence of Seton’s work would indicate an inability to distinguish between fact and fiction. Of course, all of these qualifications are necessary because Burroughs cannot dismiss Seton's animal protagon ists in the same way as Roberts’. Seton writes with his own authority —he is not ‘just’ a writer like Roberts—and so his claims of truth are more problematic. For in stance, when dismissing Roberts’ supposedly anthropomorphic representations, Burroughs almost enters into a discussion about animal psyc hology. He concedes that it is “mainly guesswork how far our psychology applies to the lower animals, ” yet also asserts that there can be “no doubt” that animals “experience many of our emotions,” but there is “grave doubt” about whether “they have intellectual and reasoning processes like our own, ex cept in a very rudimentary form” (131). He acknowledges the difficulties and ambiguities of studying animal minds, yet is compelled to maintain the absolute terms of the debate. Hence h e declares: “I need not go into that vexed subject here” (131). Burroughs evades the rhetorical quandary by emphasizing the fanci ful anthropomorphism of Roberts’ work. He “need not” enter into a discussion of animal psychology because neither Roberts ’ animal characters nor his authority justify it. As we will see, however, it is a different case for Seton. In the January 1899 edition of the journal Science, there is a review of Wild Animals I Have Known , which opens: “Rarely are the qualities of naturalist, Allmark-Kent 139 writer and artist combined in one person, but Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton has won d istinction in all three roles” (T.S.P, 26-7). The reviewer, identified only as “T.S.P.,” continues: As a naturalist he has enjoyed opportunities for study and observation both in Canada and the United States, chiefly in Ontario, Manitoba and New Mexico. As a writer he is known as the author of ‘Birds of Manitoba,’ ‘Mammals of Manitoba,’ and numerous articles contributed to magazines and scientific journals. As an artist he is perhaps still more widely known through his ‘Art of Taxidermy,’ and work in illustrating several popular book on natural history, more especially on birds. (27) As one might expect, from the tone of this opening, the review is a highly favourable one . T.S.P. describes the book as “original in conception and execution,” “entertaining and instructive,” and with “many things of interest” for the “student of natural history” (27). The reviewer recognizes that Seton “describes his friends from what might be termed the human standpoint, i.e., not as mere objects, but as individuals endow ed with personality and reason,” but there is no mention of anthropomorphism or sentimentality here (27). Again, the tone indicates that the reviewer approve s. S/he explains that the book “is not intended” to be “a scientific treatise on mammals” and, hence, is not concerned by Seton's assertions of truth: The reader is assured that the stories are true, but this does not necessarily imply that every detail was based on actual observation. In fact, it would be practically impossible to observe some of the scenes depicted in the biographies [...] In describing the habits of a particular animal there is little more than a skeleton of fact on which to build. The record is so fragmentary that an author is compelled to fill in the gaps from his general knowledge of the species and to represent the characters as he conceives them to be. Such descriptions are of necessity composite and subject to personal equation and imagination. (27) We can see in this r esponse the grounds for Roberts’ belief that wild animal story could contribute to the study of animal psychology. The reviewer sees the book’s “insight into the habits and daily lives” as a valuable departure “from the beaten path of natural history,” (27) yet also understands the context of these Allmark-Kent 140 representations an d that Seton’s claims of ‘truth’ cannot be taken entirely literally. To tho se who only know of Seton as a ‘Nature Faker’ and ‘sham’ naturalist, this approval from a scientific journal might seem incongruous. At this time, however, the controversy had not started and Seton was simply a naturalist, writer, and artist who had produced a book of animal stories (with accompanying illustrations) based on some of his observations. Favourable responses to Seton’s work such as this challenge the absolute terms of Burroughs’ criticisms and also indicate the perceived threat that Seton posed to the eminent naturalist’s authority. Thus, when criticizing Wild Animals I Have Known, Burroughs could not just dismiss Seton’s animal protagonists as anthropomorphic, as he had done with Kindred of the Wild. Seton claimed that they were real and that he had known them. As he was, in effect, presenting his stories as anecdotal evidence, Burroughs challenged Seton’s authority as a naturalist and the validity of his observations and interpretations. He began by undermining Seton's claim of ‘truth’: Mr. Thompson Seton says in capital letters that his stories are true, and it is this emphatic assertion that makes the judicious grieve. True as romance, true in their artistic effects, true in their power to entertain the young reader, they certainly are but true as natural history they as certainly are not. (132) Here, Burroughs tries to depict Seton not as a naturalist, but as an author of fiction (like Roberts) capable only of romance and entertainment. Again, however, Seton’s credentials make such a portrayal difficult, and so Burroughs attacks them directly: Are we to believe that Mr. Thompson Seton, in his few years of roaming the West, has penetrated father into the secrets of animal life than all the observers who have gone before him? There are no stories of animal intelligence and cunning on record, that I am aware of, that match his. (132, emphasis added). Allmark-Kent 141 Of course, this was not the case . As I have demonstrated, Seton’s representations are in accordance with Romanes’ theory of animal intelligence. This was based on the vast number of anecdotes and observations that both he and Darwin had collected —in other words, what we might call “stories of animal intelligence [...] on record.” Interestingly, Burroughs goes on to list “expert students and observers, ” including Darwin, who “have nothing to report that comes close to what appear to be Mr. Thompson Seton’s daily experiences” (132). Although he calls upon these important names from science, natural history, and nature writing (including Gilbert White, John Muir, and Henry David Thoreau for instance), it is clear that Burroughs implicitly includes himself in this collection of “all the observers that have gone before” Seton. Once more, Burroughs’ need to reassert his authority is clear. He cannot simply condemn Seton for overstepping the boundaries of the author, because he has already established himself as an artist and a naturalist. Hence, Burroughs must c onstruct him as a profiteering ‘sham’ naturalist instead. Yet, we find that the majority of Burroughs’ criticisms focus not on fundamental errors in Seton’s natural history, but his representations of animal intelligence —unique survival strategies developed by particular individuals, observations of unusual problem-solving, parental instruction, and communication (132- 8). As such, he isolates the story of “Silverspot” in Download 3.36 Mb. 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