The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Allmark-KentC
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Allmark-Kent 76 Defamiliarization is used to challenge violent and exploitative practices, as well as the species stereotypes that legitimize them (for example, this species is ‘vermin,’ therefore human violence against them should be accepted and encouraged) Scientifically-informed representations that may either demonstrate the current understanding or speculate on the upper limits of each species’ cognitive, emotional, social, cultural, and linguistic complexity Representations that may seek to challenge our definitions of human uniqueness (such as the use of language, the use of tools, showing altruistic behaviour and so on) Authors may reinforce their representations through evidence of some form (for instance anecdotes, archive materials, research, or first-hand observation) In the next chapter, “Wild Animals and Nature Fakers,” I will explain these characteristics in detail and reveal their presence in Seton ’s and Roberts’ stories. I will also demonstrate the ways in which they relate to the contextual factors discussed in the current chapter: ‘literature,’ ‘advocacy,’ and ‘science’, using the zoocentric framework. In the biography, Charles G.D. Roberts (1923), James Cappon asserts that the “honour of originating” the wild animal story belongs to Roberts, although “it has been said that [he] was an imitator of Kipling, Thompson Seton and others in his trea tment of the nature story” (16, 18). Cappon explains: In the first place he contributed “Do Seek Their Meat from God” to Harper’s Magazine in the late eighties, and from then on provided a constantly increasing number of similar stories in Lippincott’s Magazine, Youth’s Companion and many more. If, therefore, there was any imitating it must have been by someone else. (18-9) Allmark-Kent 77 Yet, in a short piece for The Bookman (1913), Roberts makes no such claims for himself, stating instead that Seton “is chiefly responsible for the vogue of the modern ‘Animal Story’” (147). The publication dates would seem to confirm this, and in the preface to Lives of the Hunted (1901), Seton comments that the story of the “Chickadee” is “one of a series of stories written in the period from 1881 to 1893, and published in various magazines. It is inserted [here] as an example of my early work” (10). Crucially, however, Seton recognizes a difference between these stories and those written from the mid-1890s onwards. In the earlier form, he admits to using “the archaic method, making the animals talk [...] Since then I have adhered to the more scientific method of which ‘Lobo’ is my earliest important example. This was written in February, 1894, for ‘Scribners Magazine,’ and published November, 1894” (10-11, emphasis added). Despite his work as a naturalist, it is rare for Seton to describe his own stories in scientific terms; instead it is Roberts who emphasizes this relationship with animal psychology. In the same Bookman article, Roberts comments: “there is another side of these stories and it is the pre-eminently distinctive side. They aim above all to get at the psychology of their subjects. [...] From observed actions they strive to deduce motives and emotions” (147). Hence, I see Seton and Roberts as co-creators of the realistic wild animal story and I suggest that they played very different roles. Whilst Seton had been working as an artist, naturalist, and occasional hunter, Roberts had been editing literary journals and teaching English and French literature (Cappon 8-9). In 1896, however, Roberts resigned his professorship and moved to New York, where he met and befriended Seton, and the two even discussed collaborating on a collection of stories (Cappon 16, Fiamengo 38). Thus, I would contend that whilst Seton made the original innovation, Roberts defined and refined the Allmark-Kent 78 genre. Like the talking animals that he mentions, some of Seton’s stories can be considered as uncharacteristic of the wild animal story; being more anthropocentric and autobiographical than is usual, for instance. Alternatively, although Roberts’ stories can border on the formulaic, he is consistent and utilizes the preface of each book to reinforce the aims and parameters of the genre. When both bodies of work are read together, however, what emerges is a clear picture of the genre that I have described. Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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