The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
Practical Zoocriticism and the Wild Animal Story 23 CHAPTER TWO
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- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- CHAPTER SEVEN Conclusion 247
- BIBLIOGRAPHY 269
- “Ideas That Simply Will Not Go Away”: The Legacy of the Wild Animal Story
Practical Zoocriticism and the Wild Animal Story 23 CHAPTER TWO Knowing Other Animals: Nonhumans in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature 33 Canadians and Animals 33 Canadian and Animal Victims 38 Knowing Other Animals 43 Knowing and Not-Knowing Animals 54 CHAPTER THREE Practical Zoocriticism: Contextualizing the Wild Animal Story 63 Critical Responses 63 Literature 78 Advocacy 83 Science 89 CHAPTER FOUR Wild Animals and Nature Fakers 100 Literature 100 Advocacy 111 Science 122 The Nature Fakers Controversy 137 CHAPTER FIVE Realistic Representations: Roderick Haig- Brown’s Return to the River, Fred Bodsworth’s Last of the Curlews, and R.D. Lawrence’s The White Puma 146 Introduction 146 Return to the River 147 Last of the Curlews 161 The White Puma 174 CHAPTER SIX Speculative Representations: Frederick Philip Grove’s Consider Her Ways, Barbara Gowdy’s The White Bone, and Alison Baird’s White as the Waves 195 Introduction 195 Consider Her Ways 196 The White Bone 212 White as the Waves 229 CHAPTER SEVEN Conclusion 247 The Wild Animal’s Story 247 Practising Zoocriticism 249 Reciprocal Communication and Practical Zoocentrism 257 APPENDIX 262 GLOSSARY 266 BIBLIOGRAPHY 269 Allmark-Kent 6 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION In this collection, see how often his name appears. See how often scholars defer to his authority. See how often they attack his credibility. See how many authors claim him as a seminal influence. See into how many languages his work has been translated. See all of this and more and recognize, in the flawed work of Ernest Thompson Seton (an immigrant to Canada with no formal education beyond art school), ideas that simply will not go away” (John Wadland, review of Other Selves 262). “Ideas That Simply Will Not Go Away”: The Legacy of the Wild Animal Story The late nineteenth-century wild animal stories of Ernest Thompson Seton and Charles G.D. Roberts hold a much debated position in Canadian literature and, more recently, at the heart of Canadian literary animal studies. These stories have been described as “distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73) and have shaped much subsequent Canadian fiction about animals. Yet the eminent Canadian critic, James Polk, famously described them as an “outdated, scarcely respecta ble branch of our literature” (51) and they continue to be marginalized as something of a national embarrassment. 1 These short stories about wild animals also triggered a long and well-publicized dispute, known as the Nature Fakers controversy, which began with a disparaging article by the American naturalist John Burroughs (published in 1903) and ended when President Theodore Roosevelt wrote his own condemnation of the stories in 1907. How could short stories about the lives of wild animals prove so divisive? How did these two Canadian authors attract such heavy criticism, and why has the reputation of their work improved so little? 1 Margaret Atwood, Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature (1972). James Polk, “Lives of the Hunted,” Canadian Literature, issue 53 (1972). Allmark-Kent 7 Although these questions have stimulated some debate, I contend that no sufficiently comprehensive explanations have been produced. It is my opinion that a full understanding of both the stories and the controversy requires a far more detailed investigation into their relevant contexts than has been completed in the field, so far. In this thesis, I take the position that the negative perception and reception of the wild animal story can be explained through intersecting discourses surrounding the relationship between Canadians and animals, the anxiety of anthropomorphism, the scientific study of animal minds, and the division between science and literature. Likewise, I suggest that the continued marginalization of this topic is the product of both anthropocentric stigma against concern for animals and disciplinary trends that are shaping the emergence of literary animal studies (which I discuss in the following section of this chapter). It is my belief, then, that Seton and Roberts are responsible for a literary innovation, rather than a literary embarrassment. Using an original analytical framework that I have developed, called practical zoocriticism, it is my aim to re- examine, re-contextualize, and re-evaluate both the wild animal story and Nature Fakers controversy. In the 1880s, Seton and Roberts began experimenting with ‘realistic’ forms of nonhuman literary representation. Their narratives prioritized the lives and experiences of wild animals, and were generally based on a combination of natural history and individual observation. Seton gained his knowledge first-hand, while Roberts collated the anecdotes of other witnesses. As such, the wild animal story is a hybrid blend of science and storytelling, in which the boundaries between ‘fact’ and ‘fiction’ are often blurred. This became the central point of the controversy. The stories were deemed to be both inaccurate and anthropomorphic. Seton and Roberts were condemned Allmark-Kent 8 as ‘nature fakers.’ In this thesis, I contend that the dispute was driven by specific contextual factors, rather than any inherent fault in Seton ’s and Roberts’ writing. In particular, I will observe the impact of the late nineteenth-century professionalization of the sciences and its consequences for the study of natural history and animal psychology. Using the practical zoocriticism framework I develop through this work, I will also offer new evidence of the contemporary influences shaping Seton ’s and Roberts’ literary innovation. This will include: the increased public interest in the minds and inner lives of animals, which developed from the 1860s onwards; the emergence and steady momentum of animal welfare and wildlife conservation movements in the United Kingdom and United States; the absence of any such coherent animal advocacy in Canada; the mid-nineteenth century anthropocentric use of animals in Canadian literature, in which they appeared not as individuals, but as objects of utility. Through this method of re-contextualization, I will demonstrate that Seton and Roberts had actually produced a new style of nonhuman literary representation and a unique form of Canadian literature. In a review of the first edited collection of Canadian literary animal studies essays published so far, Other Selves: Animals in the Canadian Literary Imagination (2007), John Wadland takes note of the ubiquitous presence of Seton and his work. Seton’s name is mentioned in many different essays, in all three sections of the book, and in “numerous conflicting guises” (259). Moreover, Wadland declares that the wild animal story, which he sees as “primarily Seton’s creation,” is “ultimately responsible for launching Canada’s version of ecocriticism” (262). If the wild animal story is so intrinsic to the study of animals in Canadian literature, why has it not yielded any sustained, book- Allmark-Kent 9 length analysis? The closest is the work of Ralph H. Lutts, yet his monograph, The Nature Fakers: Wildlife, Science & Sentiment (1990), is more concerned with describing the events of the controversy than providing any critical analysis. His book The Wild Animal Story (1998) is an edited collection of wild animal stories, articles from the subsequent debate, and more recent critical essays. There is minimal interpretation from Lutts himself. Moreover, his definition of the wild animal story extends beyond the work of Seton and Roberts to incorporate the American writers William J. Long, Jack London, John Muir, and Rachel Carson . In Lutts’ hands, the Canadian writers of this “distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73) genre are actually outnumbered by Americans. Here, then, we encounter one of the fundamental problems: there is still no consensus on the definition of the wild animal story, what it should be called, or who created it. It is my contention in this thesis that the wild animal story is a highly specific form of animal writing, co-created by Ernest Thompson Seton and Charles G.D. Roberts, in response to the changing perception and treatment of animals in the second half of the nineteenth century. One of the functions of this thesis will be to provide the first full definition and set of identifying characteristics for the wild animal story. In order to assess the lasting impact of Seton ’s and Roberts’ innovation on Canadian literature, I will use this definition to trace the wild animal story’s core characteristics across six twentieth-century novels by Canadian authors. In the early twentieth-century, immediately following the Nature Fakers controversy, the wild animal story went into decline. I propose that we can see its re-emergence, and post-Nature Fakers adaptation, in Roderick Haig- Brown’s Return to the River: A Story of the Chinook Run (1941); Frederick Philip Grove’s Allmark-Kent 10 Consider Her Ways (1947); Fred Bodsworth’s Last of the Curlews (1956); R.D. Lawrence’s The White Puma (1990); Barbara Gowdy’s The White Bone (1998); and Alison Baird’s White as the Waves (1999). Whilst the chronology of these texts might seem unusual, this is due to the fact that such narratives are remarkably rare. Many authors have written in opposition to Seton ’s and Roberts’ style, but only a few have replicated it. I believe that this is due, in part, to the stigma attached to the genre after the Nature Fakers controversy. Indeed, these six texts are divided between what I have designated ‘realistic’ and ‘speculative’ forms of wild animal story. Again, I attribute this separation to the issues raised during the controversy; most importantly, the question o f ‘realistic’ animal representation. It must be noted, however, that extremely little scholarship has been produced about these texts —for some of them, my work is the first and only —and, at best, there are often just mere paragraphs in which any scholar has interpreted them through the lens of the wild animal story. Therefore, using a survey of other twentieth-century Canadian texts in Chapter Two, I will attempt to demonstrate the highly distinctive nature of the genre, which I see as a divergence from dominant methods of animal representation. From this wider survey of Canadian literature, I have identified three distinct modes of relating to animals. The first is the ‘fantasy of knowing’ the animal, in which the author imagines both the lives and the experiences of nonhuman animals, and attempts to write from an animal-centric perspective as much as possible. I argue that the work of Seton, Roberts, and the six twentieth-century authors belongs to this category, and that the differences between the ‘realistic’ and ‘speculative’ styles relate to the ways in which they negotiate the question of ‘knowing’ the animal. The second, the ‘failure of knowing’ the animal, describes narratives of human and animal interaction in Allmark-Kent 11 which there is always an inability to understand or to communicate with the nonhuman animal; human efforts to bond with an animal, and their eventual failure, are often the focus of the plot. The third mode is the ‘acceptance of not- knowing’ the animal, and this refers to narratives founded on the premise that the nature of ‘the animal’ can never be known. In fact, distinctions between humans, animals, and supernatural beings are often blurred, challenging the rigidity of scientific classifications and exposing the arrogance of any human perspective that claims to ‘know’ the animal. Based on my investigation, I have found that the majority of twentieth-century Canadian literature featuring nonhuman animals falls into the latter two categories. Moreover, I have observed that it is with these two styles of animal representation that literary animal studies seems to be most concerned at present. Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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