The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Allmark-KentC
living animal. Indeed, I have observed that authors of wild animal stories
—both the original and post-Nature Fakers iterations —all share a commitment to seeking some form of practical engagement: raising awareness of ecological and conservation issues; encouraging empathy and moral concern for animal exploitation; facilitating the imaginative exploration of nonhuman perspectives; or speculating on the upper limits of animal cognitive, social, linguistic, emotional, or cultural complexity. Hence, in order for such endeavours to be productive, we must reconcile our embarr assment with the ‘fantasy of knowing the animal.’ This issue of ‘knowing’ was much-debated in the Nature Fakers controversy, but not from an animal-sceptical perspective. In the article that instigated the debate, “Real and Sham Natural History,” (1903) John Burroughs derides Seton’s work by modifying the title to “Wild Animals I ALONE Have Known ” (129). Indeed, Burroughs’ criticism was not that Seton had claimed to know these animals, but that the abilities and behaviours depicted in the book were previous ly unknown: “There are no stories of animal intelligence and cunning on record, that I am aware of, that match his” (132). Although the controversy is remembered in terms of Seton ’s and Roberts’ sentimental anthropomorphism, it is crucial to observe that these accusations were made on the grounds of specific depictions that indicated nonhuman cognitive, social, or emotional complexity. Thus, the conflict was not based on ‘true’ or ‘false’ representations, but differing perceptions of animal intelligence. As such, it is highly significant that, at this time, dominant theories of animal psychology were transitioning from explanations based on intelligence to those based on instinct. I contend, therefore, that by pursuing the relevant historical contexts in depth, we find that the accusation of ‘nature faker’ signifies more about the changing Allmark-Kent 28 states of natural history and animal psychology at the turn of the century, than the anthropomorphic errors of the authors. Through the framework of practical zoocriticism, I will explore the interconnected discourses that shaped both the wild animal story and Nature Fakers controversy, as well as the contextual and ideological factors that led to the success of Burroughs and his fellow accusers over Seton, Roberts, and their stories. For this interdisciplinary approach, I will investigate the historical evolution of the following: Canadian wildlife conservation and animal welfare; the study of animal psychology; the widening gap between science and literature; and the representation of animals in Canadian literature. As such, the unusual interplay between literature, science, and advocacy brought together by the wild animal story should also provide valuable insights for practical zoocriticism. Moreover, using this original analytical framework, I hope to demonstrate a potential method for engaging with the literary nonhuman in a way which incorporates both the sciences and animal advocacy. In the second chapter of this thesis, “Knowing Other Animals: Nonhumans in Twentieth-C entury Canadian Literature,” my objective is to demonstrate that the wild animal story is not representative of Canadian fiction in general. At present, however, there is no accepted theory of animal representation in Canadian literature. Critics have asserted the importance of animals in the Canadian context, but none have presented a satisfactory characterization of (or explanation for) their role. In consequence, the secondary purpose of this chapter will be to evaluate the current theories of Canadian animal representation, and use environmental history and a survey of twentieth-century texts to propose a potential alternative. It is here that I explain my model of Allmark-Kent 29 animal representation (the fantasy of knowing, the failure of knowing, and the acceptance of not-knowing) in-depth, and provide a range of literary examples. Nonetheless, it must be clear that I am reluctant to impose a single, homogenizing interpretation onto Canada’s complex and varied relationships with nonhuman animals. Thus, I assert that my characterization of Canadian literary animals works in opposition to theories that are based on an imagined ‘Canadian psyche’ (such as Margaret Atwood’s in Survival) and resists any attempt to subsume First Nations, Inuit, Métis, Francophone-Canadian, and Anglophone-Canadian cultures into one unifying perspective. The subsequent two chapters address the re-contextualization and re- evaluation of the wild animal story and Nature Fakers controversy. The former, “Practical Zoocriticism: Contextualizing the Wild Animal Story,” begins with a review of previous work on the topic in order to demonstrate the need for my investigation. I argue that anthropocentric interpretations have often attempted to sever the wild animal story’s connections to science and advocacy as part of analyses which undermine the nonhuman presence. By discussing the ways in which the genre’s poor definition has exacerbated these issues, I establish the necessity for a coherent set of characteristics. Then, I propose a more cohesive definition of the genre, situated within an explanation of its origins. After which, I use the practical zoocriticism model to contextualize the wild animal story and Nature Fakers controversy. For the sake of clarity, I divide this part of the chapter into thr ee sections, titled ‘Literature,’ ‘Advocacy,’ and ‘Science,’ each of which provides an overview and discussion of the relevant contexts. In “Wild Animals and Nature Fakers,” I use the groundwork laid in the previous chapter to provide my interpretations of the wild animal story and Nature Fakers controversy. Thus, the chapter is divided into two sections. In the Allmark-Kent 30 first, I use the practical zoocriticism framework to discuss Seton ’s and Roberts’ stories and highlight the impact of each contextual factor (‘literature,’ ‘advocacy,’ and ‘science’) on different characteristics of the genre. Rather than a separate analysis of each story, I take a holistic approach across the genre using Seton’s collections Wild Animals I Have Known (1898), Lives of the Hunted (1901), and Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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