Translation. TYPES OF translation. Translation as an act of communication
TRANSLATION OF INTERNATIONAL WORDS
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Lecture 1-6
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- TRANSLATION OF NEOLOGISMS
- RENDERING OF THE WORDS OF NATIONAL (LOCAL) COLOURING (REALIAES)
- Lexical problems of translation
- LEXICAL PROBLEMS Different vision and usage
- Divergences in the Semantic Structure
- 3. Different Valency
- Translation of Monosemantic Words
- Rendering of Antroponyms
- Translation of Pseudo-International Words
4 TRANSLATION OF INTERNATIONAL WORDS Those words which have similar form and meaning in different languages are called international words. Some of them completely coincide in their meaning /such as football, diplomacy, artillery/ some of them partially. They may be different in their stylistic coloring e.g. “businessman”, “cosmopolitan” are neutral in English while in Russian they have negative meaning. Some of them have entirely different meaning: compositor – наборщик conductor – дирижёр,кондуктор These words are called pseudointernational words: решительный- dramatic pathetic – 1) трогательный 2) политический наука и техника – science and technology
TRANSLATION OF NEOLOGISMS The English language is very rich in neologisms – the word have been created recently and perhaps will not live in the language for a long time. It is very seldom that we find equivalent for the translation of neologisms and for the most part we use descriptive translation and word-for-word translation /people of good will, top level talks. We usually make out the meaning of the new words with the help of the context, but it is also necessary to take into consideration the way of their formation. RENDERING OF THE WORDS OF NATIONAL (LOCAL) COLOURING (REALIAES) National or local coloring is one of the main features of national peculiarities in literature. Here belong the following elements: 1. The world denoting things peculiar to the social and material life of the Nation// реалии /- star chamber- вьездная палата; камин; дилитанс; клуб. 2. Proper names, geographical denominations, names of streets, big shops, theatres. 3. The way of greetings, formulas of politeness (Hello, sir) 4. Linear measures, liquid measures, day measures (мера сыпучих тел). The translation of realiae usually presents some difficulties. It’s necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the life of the nation to avoid ridiculous mistakes. Here are some ways of translating the words of local coloring: by translator (cab –кеб. It helps to preserve foreign coloring in the translation, but the word translated should be clear to the reader. Otherwise, the disruptive translation is desirable. -“A tall man entered the room. He wore a tweed coat and a pair of hob- nails” -“Tweed” – a kind of Scottish woolen stuff dyed into two colors. -«В комнату вошёл высокий человек. На нём была куртка сшитая из твида и подбитые гвоздями сапоги». But for the Russian and Uzbek readers it is not clear what the word “tweed” means that’s why it’s better to translate the sentence as follows:
В комнату вошёл высокий человек, одетый в шерстяную куртку. But if we have no idea of the context we can’t say if the translation is correct. First of all we should find out for what reason the author mentioned the fact that the coat was made of tweed. After the reading the story we learn that the person who entered the room was a detective distinguished as a pleasant. So the translation should be as follows: -В комнату вошёл человек одетый в простую крестьянскую куртку. If the author wanted to accentual that it was cold outside he should have translated it as follows: -В комнату вошёл человек, одетый в тёплую шерстяную куртку. Below are three principle ways of translating words denoting specific realiae: 1.Transliteration (complete or partial), i.e., the direct use of word denoting realiae or its roots in the spelling or in combination with suffixes of the mother tongue (cab, дуппи, сандал, изба); 2. Creation of new single or complex word for denoting an object on the basis of elements and morphological relationships in the mother tongue (skyscraper –осмонўпар, небоскрёб). 3. Use of a word denoting sometimes close to / though not identical with) realiae of another language. It represents an approximate translation specified by the context, which is something on the verge of description/ peddler – таркатувчи, торговец- разносчик /. Proper names, geographical denominations are rendered as a rule by means of transliteration, but we should take into account concerning historical proper names, geographical denominations, etc. William the conquer – Вильгельм завоеватель King Charles I – Карл I / But Charles Darwin – Чарлз Дарвин / Hamlet – Гамлет Paris- Париж England - Англия. The names of political parties and state offices are usually not translated. The names of newspapers and journals are usually translated, as well as the names of firms and companies: House of Commons – Палата общин Security council –Совет безопасности But Scotland yard –Скотленд ярд / управление Лондонской полиции/ Intelligence service – интележенс сервис/развед управления Англии/ But: modern languages - модерн ленгвижес New time - новое время We translate the proper names which make some semantic meanings: dramatic / театральное/ persons of “ The Scholl for scandal” by Sheridan. Sir Peter Teazle /вайсақи, болтун / Sir Oliver Surface Sir Harry Bumpler- /амортизатор, прибор, смягчающий удары/ Sir Benjamin Backbite –/ to blackbite – злословить за стеной, клеветать/ Joseph Surface Charles Surface Mr. Careless Mrs. Snake Crabtree / crab- дикая яблоня, ёввои олма ёки придира, танқидчи Lady Sneerwall- (to sneer – насмехаться) Mrs. Candour- / искренность, прямота, самимий/ Formulas of politeness are rendered by means of transliterations. But in official documents and information “Господин” and “ Госпожа”(хонум ва жаноблар)are usually used. As for as linear measures, liquid measures and etc. They are usually rendered by means of transliteration, but the tradition is also taken into consideration: A pound of sterling – фунт стерлинг Ounce – унция Mile- миля Pint –пинта Some peculiarities of English measures are not reflected in Russian: Six months- полгода, ярим йил Eighteen month –полтора года, бир ярим йил Fortnight- две недели, 2 хафта
The peculiarities of the English language are extremely exact indications of measures, which seem for Russian quite unusual: He could take nothing for dinner but a partridge (куропатка, каклик)with an imperial “cab”. 1. Наёмный экипаж /we want for example to stress that the hero was rich/ 2. Кеб /we have for an object to preserve national coloring/ 3. Извозчик / Russian coloring / 4. Такси /modern life/ 5. кеб (аравадек) Lexical problems of translation The study of the language is arguably the most hotly contested property in the academic realm. It becomes a tangle begetting multiple language discrepancies. That is why linguistics compares languages and explores their histories, in order to find and to account for its development and origins to give the answers to this or that language point. Due to the semantic features of language the meanings of words, their ability to combine with other words, their usage, the “place” they hold in the lexical system of a language do not concur for the most part. All the same “ideas” expressed by words coincide in most cases, though the means of expression differ. The principal types of lexical correspondences between two languages are as follows: 1) Complete correspondences; 2) Partial correspondences; 3) The absence of correspondences [1: 96]. Let's deal with them more exactly. 1) Complete lexical correspondences. Complete correspondence of lexical units of two languages can rarely be found. As a rule they belong to the following lexical groups: - proper names and geographical denominations: - the months and days of the week, numerals. - scientific and technical terms (with the exception of terminological polysemy). 2) Partial lexical correspondences. While translating the lexical units partial correspondences mostly occur. That happens when a word in the language of the original conforms to several equivalents in the language it is translated into. The reasons of these facts are the following . 1. Most words in a language are polysemantic. That's why the selection of a word in the process of translating is determined by the context. 2. The specification of synonymous order. However, it is necessary to allow for the nature of the semantic signs which an order of synonyms is based on. Therefore, it is advisable to account for the concurring meanings of members of synonymic orders, the difference in lexical and stylistic meanings, and the ability of individual components of orders of synonyms to combine. 3. Each word affects the meaning of an object it designates. Not infrequently languages “select” different properties and signs to describe the same denotations. The way, each language creates its own “picture of the world”, is known as” various principles of dividing reality into parts”. Despite the difference of signs, both languages reflect one and the same phenomenon adequately and to the same extent, which must be taken into account when translating words of this kind, as equivalence is not identical to having the same meaning. 4. The differences of semantic content of the equivalent words in two languages. These words can be divided into their sub-group: a) Words with a differentiated (undifferentiated) meaning: e.g. In English: to swim (of a human being), to sail (of a ship), to float (of an inanimate object); b) Words with a “broad” sense: verbs of state (to be), perception and brainwork (to see, to understand), verbs of action and speech (to go, to say). c) "Adverbial verbs” with a composite structure which have a semantic content, expressing action and nature at the same time: e.g. the train whistled out of the station. 5. Most difficulties are encountered when translating the so called pseudo-international words. The regular correspondence of such words in spelling and sometimes in articulation coupled with the structure of word-building in both languages may lead to a false identification. 6. Each language has its own typical rules of combinability. A language has generally established traditional combinations which do not concur with corresponding ones in another language. Adjectives offer considerable difficulties in the process of translation. It does not always coincide with their combinability in the Ukrainian or Russian languages on account of differences in their semantic structure [3:236]. Frequently one and the same adjective in English combines with a number of nouns, while in Russian different adjectives are used in combinations of this kind. For this reason it is not easy to translate English adjectives which are more capable of combining than their Russian equivalents. A specific feature of the combinability of English nouns is that some of them can function as the subject of a sentence though they do not belong to a lexico-semantic category. The habitual use of a word, which is bound up with the history of the formation and development of its lexical system. This gave shape to clichйs peculiar to each language, which are used for describing particular situations.
One and the same object of reality can be seen by different languages in different aspects. This is reflected in different usage, e.g.
Hot milk with skin on it - Горячее молоко с пенкой. English singles out the outer covering and Russian the boiling form. School-leavers - выпускники школы In English teenagers leave the school while in Russian the school "releases" them into the world. The city is built on terraces rising from the lake (The Times, 1957) - Город построен на террасах, спускавшихся к озеру. Не folded his arms across his chest, crossed his knees (Taylor Caldwell) - Он сложил руки на груди, положил ногу на ногу. This factor presents less difficulty for the translator into Russian than for the translator into English. The difficulty arises when such words are used figuratively as part of some lexical stylistic device. "Instant history, like instant coffee, can sometimes be remarkably palatable, at least it is in this memoir by a former White House aide who sees L.B.J. as "an extraordinary gifted President who was the wrong man from the wrong place at the wrong time under the wrong circumstance", (Time, 1969). «Современная история, как и такой же современный продукт, как растворимый кофе, иногда бывает удивительно приятна, по крайней мере это так в рецензируемых мемуарах бывшего помощника президента, который характеризует Джонсона как «удивительно способного президента, который был неподходящим человеком, родом из неподходящего места, в неподходящее время, при неподходящих обстоятельствах». То render the simile the translator is forced to resort to an addition: такой современный продукт, как... Sometimes, due to a different vision the meaning of a word in the source-language is wider and less differentiated and corresponds to two or more correlated words in the target language. E.g. "Blue" corresponds to two Russian words: синий, голубой. The Russian equivalents of "purple" are «пурпурный, фиолетовый, синий». The choice of the equivalent depends on the linguistic or extra-linguistic context: purple robes of Roman emperors - пурпурные одеяния римских императоров; purple ink - фиолетовые чернила; purple shades - синие тени. 2. Divergences in the Semantic Structure Divergence in the semantic structure is one of the primary causes of lexical transformations. These divergences are connected with peculiar features of a word or a group of words. Even words, which seem to have the same meaning in the source language and the target language are not identical. Most often primary meanings of such words coincide while their derivative meanings do not. "Semantic correlation between two languages is not to be interpreted as semantic identity. Due to complexity of semantic structure "one-to-one" correspondence between the semantic structure of correlated polysemantic words in the S.L. and T.L. is scarcely possible.
Not infrequently similar meanings of Russian and English words differ in some components. This phenomenon is usually reflected in dictionaries where more than one Russian equivalent is listed under the same meaning of the English word. For example, the primary and the secondary meanings of the adjective "gloomy" are rendered in English-Russian dictionaries by two Russian words: 1) тёмный, мрачный 2) мрачный, унылый. The use of two Russian equivalents proves that the semantic volume of the English meaning is wider and requires two Russian words for an adequate rendering. The analysis of the polysemantic word "mellow" shows that it can apply to a variety of objects and notions: fruit, wine, soil, voice, man. Each sphere of its application corresponds to a different derivative meaning and each meaning has two or more Russian equivalents. 1. спелый, мягкий, сладкий, сочный /о фруктах/; 2. а. выдержанный, старый; б. приятный на вкус/о вине/; 3. подобревший, смягчившийся с возрастом /о человеке/; 4. мягкий, сочный, густой /о голосе и красках/; 5. а) рыхлый; б) плодородный, жирный /о почве/; 6. разгов. весёлый, подвыпивший. /БАРС/ 3. Different Valency The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target- language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/. The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language: trains run - поезда ходят; a fly stands on the ceiling - на потолке сидит муха; It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) - Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке. Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) - За сообщением о сделке
консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии. Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation "the most controversial Prime Minister" cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр». "Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe" (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения». "Sweden's neutral faith ought not
to be
in doubt"
(Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению». The collocation "documentary bombshell" is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation - документальная бомба - impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations: "A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi" (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал,не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси». Translation of Monosemantic Words Monosemantic words are comparatively few in number. There are the following lexical group of monosemantic words: (1) antroponyms, (2) geographic names, (3) names of institutions, organisations, periodicals, (4) scientific and technological terms. Monosemy is typical of numerals, names of months, days of the week, etc. Rendering of Antroponyms The function of antroponyms is purely nominative. They help to identify a person. There are two ways of rendering them: transcription and transliteration. Transcription is now universally accepted. Mary - Мэри, Jack - Джек, Hailey - Хейли , etc. Tradition, however, still plays an important role. Some well-known names are rendered according to the tradition. Thus, it is George Bernard Show - Джордж Бернард Шоу (not Шо). King George is - король Георг, King Charles I - король Карл Первый. Some "telling names" in fiction are translated: Тяпкин-Ляпкин - Slap-Dash, Humpty-Dumpty - Шалтай-Болтай. Translation of Pseudo-International Words There is a distinct group of words, which constitute a special difficulty for the translator, the so-called pseudo-international words. As distinct from genuine international words which have a more or less similar phonetic form and carry the same meaning (electronics -электроника, cybernetics - кибернетика, algebra - алгебра, the pseudo-international words differ in meaning from language to language either completely, e.g. commutator- коллектор, complexion - цвет лица, or partially elevator- 1) элеватор, 2) лифт. They are known as the translator's "false friends". Although they are warned against them, translators are often deceived by formal resemblance into making errors. Here are some examples of such words and their equivalents in Russian: There were attempts to sabotage key services in Santiago (the Economist, 1974) - Делались попытки вывести из строя основные объекты коммунального обслуживания в Сантьяго. We are told that BBC television this autumn will give a massive coverage to the general election (Morning Star, 1968) - Сообщили, что нынешней осенью передачи Би-Би-Си по телевидению будут широкоосвещать парламентские выборы.
The Russian word «прогресс» is monosemantic and has positive connotations. The meaning of the English "progress" is neutral and can apply to any movement as can be seen from the title of Hogarth' picture "Rake's Progress" - «Жизнь повесы», or from the following examples: Her progress about London during that first week was one thrilling adventure (H. Walpole) Её знакомство с Лондоном в ту первую неделю было сплошным увлекательным приключением. Sometimes the meaning of international words is identical in English and in Russian but the collocation pattern is different which prevents the use of the Russian word in translation. Never before in the history of the world have there been so many persons engaged in the translation of both secular and religious materials (E. Nida and Ch. Taber, The Theory and Practice of Translation). Although the meanings of the words "religious" - религиозный and" materials" - материалы are identical, the collocation «религиозные материалы» is quite impossible in Russian. An adequate translation would be: Ещё никогда в истории человечества столько людей не занималось переводом как светской, так и духовной литературы.
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