Translation. TYPES OF translation. Translation as an act of communication
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Lecture 1-6
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- Questions for self-control 1.
- Supplementation
- 2. Omission (dropping).
- All types of lexical transformations involve certain semantic changes
- 2.2 Peculiarities of each type of lexical transformations a) Concretization of meaning/ explicatory translation/ specialization
- English often makes use of general terms to describe very definite objects or actions
An integral transformation: How do you do? – Салом! Здравствуйте! 2. Antonymic translation is a complex lexico-grammatical substitution of a positive construction for the negative one and vice-versa, which is coupled with a replacement of a word by its antonym when translated. E.g.: Are you awake? – Ухлаяпсанми? Ты не спишь?; Keep off the grass! – Майса устидан юрманг! Не ходите по газону!; He was not old enough – Он был довольно молодой. У анча ёш эди. Let a sleeping dog lie. – Ухлаб ёткан итни уйғотманг. Не буди спящую собаку. Antonymic translation is more frequently used when rendering negative constructions by affirmative ones. This may be accounted for by the stylistic use of negative constructions in English for purposes of expressiveness. The English language uses grammatically only one negative in a sentence – either with a verb or with a noun but it maces a stylistic use of two negatives of which one is formed by grammatical means and the other – by means of affixation (negative prefixes or suffixes) or by lexical means, i.e. by words with a negative meanings. 3. Compensation is used when certain elements in the original text cannot be expressed in terms of the language it is translated into. It was just an accident – Случай вышел такой (the translator must show the hero’s mistake in his speech). He was ashamed of his parents...., because they said «he don't» and «she don't»… -
қилардилар. ...Он стеснялся своих родителей, потому что они говорили «хочут» и «хочете» (перевод Р. Райт - Ковалевой)
1. Supplementation (Addition) 2. Omission (dropping). 3. 3. Equivalence in translation Key words: Addition (supplementation), inexpressibility, Omission (dropping) equivalence I. Addition (supplementation). A formal inexpressibility of semantic components is the reason most met with for using supplementation as a way of lexical transformation. A formal inexpressibility of certain semantic components is typical of English word combinations N + N and Adj + N Pay claim – Иш хакини ошириш талаби. Требование повысить заработную плату; Tea strike – Забастовка производителей чая.
Some lexical elements of the English sentence may be regarded as redundant from the point of view of translation as they are not consonant with the norms and usage of the other language. In the process of omission, words with a surplus meaning are omitted (components of typically English pair–synonyms, possessive pronouns and exact measures) in order to give a more concrete expressions. E.g.: To raise one's eyebrows - Ялт этиб карамок; поднять брови (в знак изумления). He leapt to his feet – У сакраб турди. Он вскочил; The proposal was rejected and refuted – Таклиф рад этилди. Предложение было отвергнуто (отклонено); The dog sniffed every inch of the ground – Ит ҳамма жойни ҳиллаб чиқди. Собака обнюхала все.
3. EQUIVALENCE SEMANTIC AND STYLISTIC. Texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees/ fully or partially equivalent/ in respect of different levels of presentation /equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexics, etc./ and at different ranks /word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence-for-sentence/. It is apparent and has been for a very long time indeed, that the ideal of total equivalence is a chimera. Languages are different from each other; they are different in form having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings. To shift from one language from another is, by definition, to alter the forms. Further, the contrasting forms convey meanings which cannot but fail to coincide totally; there is no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, so why should anyone be surprised to discover a lack of synonymy between languages? Something is always lost / or, might one suggest “gained”?/ in process and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of original and so “betraying” the authors intentions. Hence the traitorous nature ascribed to the translator by the notorious Italian proverb: Traduttore traditore.
If equivalence is to be “preserved” at a particular level at all costs, which level is to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns put, hinges on the duel nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure – a code –which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic “sense” and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities/in the word/and create signals which possess communicative “value”. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which “preserve” the context –free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context- free semantic sense. Each of these questions defines one or more parameters of variation. What is the message contained in the text; the content of the signal; the proposional content of the speech act. Why? orients us towards the intention of the sender, the purpose for which the text was issued, the illocutionary forces of the speech acts which constitutes the underlying structure of the text, the discourse. These run the whole gamut from informing through persuading to flattering... and, as we shall see, it is rare for a text to possess a single function. Multiply functions are the norm rather than the exception for adult language so our task as receivers of text, is to find out the primary function from those which are secondary. When? is concerned with the time of the communication realized in the text and setting it in its historical context; contemporary or set in the recent or remote past or future. How? Is ambiguous, since it can refer to: a) manner of delivery; the tenor of the discourse; serious; flippant or ironic. b) medium of communication; the mode of the discourse; the channel. c) verbal / non-verbal, speech/ writing – selection to carry the signal. Where? Is concerned with the place of communication the physical location of the speech level realized in the context. Who? Refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender or receiver/s/. Both spoken and written texts will reveal to a greater or lesser extent characteristics of the speaker or writer as an individual and also, by inference, the attitude the sender adopts in relation to the receiver/s/ and to the message being transmitted; tabulated above are the following major types of translation equivalence/ formal equivalence + semantic componential equivalence +pragmatic equivalence; semantic componential and/or referential equivalence +pragmatic equivalence; pragmatic equivalence alone. Pragmatic equivalence which implies a close fit between communicative intent and the receptor’s response is required at all levels of equivalence. It may sometimes appear alone, without formal or semantic equivalence, as in the case: С днём рождения! – Many happy returns of the day!
LEXICAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION The concept of lexical transformations Some sense units of the SL retain their sense and structure in the TL unchanged, other retain only their content (i.e. meaning) unchanged, but alter or completely change their original (source language) form. The kind of major and minor alterations performed in the structural form of language units performed with the aim of achieving faithfulness in translation are referred to as translator's
They are carried out either because of the incompatibility of the TL means of expression, which makes the transplantation of some SL units to it impossible, or in order to retain the style of the SL sense units and thus maintain expressiveness of the SL sense units (ibid., p. 361). Not all sense units need to be structurally transformed in the process of translation. A considerable number of them are also transplanted to the TL in the form, meaning and structure of the original, i.e. unchanged or little changed (ibid., p. 361). Substitution of a source language unit by a target language unit, which is not registered as its dictionary equivalent, is called lexical transformation Taken separately they have a different from the original referential meaning. Thus, semantically lexical transformation is substitution of a SL lexical unit by a lexical unit with different inner form, which actualizes the sense of the SL lexical unit realized in the given context.
meaning of a word or word combination in source text may be made: more specific, more general or somewhat modified as a way to discovering an appropriate equivalent in TL (Komissarov, Koralova, p. 32). The reasons that call forth lexical transformations.
signify the same object - referent or concept of reality - by reflecting their different aspects and so the words' denotational meanings can't coincide fully. E.g.: instant coffee - розчинна кава; drawing room - вітальня; herring-bone - в ялинку. 2. The polysemantic characteristics of the words in two languages that are not commensurable (непропорційні), i.e. the corresponding words have a different number of meanings and, moreover, some of these meanings are quite dissimilar.
E.g.: trains run - поїзди ходять. 4. Peculiar usages of words caused by extra-linguistic factors (differences in the ways of life, customs, traditions, etc): E.g.: The city is built on terraces rising from the lake Місто побудоване на терасах, що спускаються до моря. (Antonymic tr.) E.g.: No smoking. Курити заборонено. (Antonymic tr.) E.g.: Never drink unboiled water.
There are five types of lexical transformations: 2. Generalization 3. Antonymic translation 4. Metonymic translation 5. Paraphrasing
There is a large group of English words of wide semantic volume (спова с широкой понятийной основой). These words belong to different parts of speech; nouns, adjectives, verbs, e.g. thing; point, stuff, stunt, affair; nice, fine, bad; to say, to go, to get, to come, to involve. As the meaning of such words is relatively vague they can be used in different contents, and their valency is therefore extremely broad. In fact they are sometimes used as mere prop-words. So a context, at least a microcontext (a minimal stretch of speech), is necessary to determine their meaning. He came in sight of the lodge, a long, low, frowning thing of red brick (A. Wilson). - Он увидел домик привратника, длинное, низкое, хмурое здание из красного кирпича. If the Prime Minister's speech made few new points, it was statesmanlike. And if it was stronger in terms of planned policy than of achieved results, this is often the case with political oratory (The Times, 1965). - Если речь премьер-министра и содержала мало нового, то это всё же была речь государственного деятеля. И хотя в ней куда более решительно говорилось о будущей политике, чем о достигнутых результатах, это часто бывает с государственными выступлениями. "Many English verbs also belong to this group, particularly verbs of motion and verbs of speech." - «Конкретное лексическое значение, тот или другой лексико- семантический вариант глагола зависит от структуры и лексического наполнения распространяющих его слов». (А.А.Уфимцева. Слово в лексико- семантической системе языка, М., 1968, стр. 90.)
At the by-election victory went to the Labour candidate (M.S. 1973). - На дополнительных выборах победу одержал лейборист. The rain came in torrents (I.Murdoch). - Полил сильный дождь. So far 65 people have died in floods in Dacca Province, East Pakistan (Morning Star, 1973) - По имеющимся сведениям, 65 человек утонуло во время наводнения в провинции Дакка, Восточный Пакистан. Not infrequently concretization is resorted to as correlated generalizing words in English and in Russian have a different usage. Thus the word limbshas a wider usage than the Russian члены. "Thank you", said Margaret, feeling large and awkward and clumsy in all her limbs. (H. Walpole). - «Благодарю Вас», - сказала Маргарет, чувствуя себя неловкой и неуклюжей и не зная, куда девать руки и ноги. The English word "child" has a wider usage than its correlated Russian «ребёнок» and is often concretized as «мальчик, сын, дочь, деточка». No one know with what passionate emotion she loved this child (H. Valpoie). - Никто не знал, как страстно ока любила своего сына. Generalization This device is the reverse of concretization. Still there is a tendency in the English language for differentiation where the Russian language uses a more general word, e.g. "рука", hand and arm; "нога" leg and foot; "палец" fingers and toes. In some cases, although there is an equivalent in the target language at the some level of abstraction, generalization may be desirable for purely stylistic reasons: Since the shooting of Robert Kenney five days ago about 90 Americans have been shot dead. (The Guardian, 1968). За те пять дней, которые прошли после убийства Роберта Кеннеди, около 90 американцев погибло от огнестрельного оружия. Generalization is sometimes used in rendering non-equivalents (e.g. summary court - дисциплинарный суд; a summary court is not only a disciplinary court but the least formal one, consisting of one officer, etc.).
Antonymic translation is a kind of grammatical and lexical transformation which substitutes an affirmative construction for a negative or vice versa with some accompanying lexical change, usually substituting the antonym for the original word. Keep the child out of the sun - He держите ребёнка на солнце. : "My precious wife", said I, "we must be serious sometimes". (Ch. Dickens), «Моя драгоценная жёнушка», - сказал я, - «Нельзя же вечно смеяться и шутить».
My aunt and I, when we were left alone, talked far into the night, how the emigrants never wrote home otherwise than cheerfully and hopefully. (Ibid.) Оставшись вдвоём, мы с тётушкой до глубокой ночи говорили о том, что уехавшие всегда писали весёлые письма, полные надежд. Metonvmic Translation Metonymic translation is a lexical transformation based on the substitution of contiguous concepts. On Capitol Hill residents have been assaulted on their porches - in their garages or while waiting for a bus, sometimes within full view of other citizens too frightened to move.
В районе Капитолия на жителей нападали у входа в дом, в их гаражах или на остановке автобуса, иногда на глазах у других граждан, слишком напуганных, чтобы хоть пальцем пошевелить. London in July with the sun for once continually shining had become a mad place, stiffing, enclosed, dry. (I.Murdoch). В этом году Лондон под палящим июльским солнцем стал невыносимый - удушливый, пыльный, давящий. In all these examples adequate translation has been achieved by means of metonymic transformations. Paraphrasing Paraphrasing is rendering of the meaning of some idiomatic phrase in the source language by a phrase in the target language consisting of non-correlated lexical units, e.g.
Good riddance - скатертью дорога; In for a penny, in for I pound - назвался груздём - полезай в кузов; взялся за гуж - не говори, что не дюж. A phraseological unit is rendered by a corresponding Russian phraseological unit expressing the same idea in different words.
translation equivalents or invariants of meanings than those given in bilingual dictionaries. It is the choice of a more specific word in translation which gives a more detailed description of the idea than does the word in source text (Komissarov, Koralova). Another term suggested by Komissarov, Koralova is explicatory translation. It often occurs among various translator's transformations when he/ she deals with the following groups of lexical units:
abstract nouns: He died of exposure; verbs of movement: leave, go, come, take, move, bring etc; polysemantic words (words with a wide range of reference) whose equivalents are too numerous to be listed in any dictionary. The role of the context in translating such words is very important; the so called `prop-words' (words that have lost their primary meaning/ have delixicalized): thing, point, business, creature, pattern, stuff, etc; verbs say and tell; words having different valeur: E.g.: “Thank you”, - said Margaret, feeling large and awkward and clumsy in all her limbs. constructions with the English verb to be always require specification E.g.: There is a picture on the wall - The book is on the table concretization may be stylistically predermined; it is often conditioned by translator's orientation toward the reader; by the need to preserve the pragmatics of the source text in translation: the pragmatics of the source text should be as understandable to the target reader (TR) as they are to source reader (SR). The outer form/ structure of the language unit may be deliberately changed when it requires a concretization. As a result the structure of the sense unit is often extended or shortened in the target language without changing its proper meaning (Korunets') E.g.: limbs - руки й ноги. Examples to illustrate concretization You have no business to say such a thing! (Galsworthy) He had left that same morning for Valencia with the car and the forty liters of petrol (Hemingway). Who can tell the dread with which that catalogue was opened and read! (Thackerey) Swithin did not exactly card and sing like a bird … (Galsworthy) 5. We drove up from Valencia with Thomas, and, as we sighted Madrid rising like a great white fortress across the plain from Alcala de Henares, Thomas said … (Hemingway) 6. She had quite a reputation for saying the wrong thing … (Galsworthy) They looked at my dress and mamma's as if they had never seen a silk gown before (Ch. Bronte).
8. The play went well from the beginning; the audience, notwithstanding the season, a fashionable one, were pleased after the holidays to find themselves once more in a playhouse, and were ready to be amused (Maugham). \
Generalization is the opposite procedure; i.e. the use of an equivalent with a more general meaning; when a generic name is preferred to a specific name. It is rather common in translation from English into Ukrainian. E.g.: I packed my two Gladstones. For obvious reasons the translator preferred a generic name to the specific name of the kind of the suitcase that the Ukrainian reader is unfamiliar with. English often makes use of general terms to describe very definite objects or actions: these may be British units of measument such as: linear measure, square measure, liquid measure, cubic, weight measure etc. which are, in many cases, not transformed into our metric system, when being translated into Ukrainian. Their meanings are often conveyed by lexical units with more general meanings: E.g.1: The walls were painted with anti-war slogans 12 inches high. E.g.2: The temperature is an easy ninety - typical of English is also the usage of numerals for the sake of precise description of objects and actions. Transplanting them would lead to literalism and violate stylistic norms of the language. E.g.1: He was just six foot tall and he had a gallant bearing (Maugham). E.g.2: Asked whether in his 100-minute talk with the Prime Minister on Tuesday he had invited him to visit Kyiv the Foreign Minister said: “Such a matter did not arise yesterday”. 100-minute talks - переговоры,
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