Translation. TYPES OF translation. Translation as an act of communication
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Lecture 1-6
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- Translation of "Non-equivalents"
- Three Ways Of Rendering Non-Equivalents 1. By direct borrowing
- By translation loans.
- The effect of the pragmatic motivation of the original message
- The effect of the receptor-to-text relation
- 2 Non-uniqueness of the translators decisions
- The problem of translatability
- II. Lexical substitution.
Rendering of Contextual Meanings A contextual meaning arises in the context. It should not be regarded as part of the semantic structure of the word. Every word possesses an enormous potentiality for generating new contextual meanings. These occasional contextual meanings are not arbitary, but are always predetermined by the semantic structure of the word. It largely depends upon the semantic context. A contextual meaning possible in one language is impossible in another. In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages (D.W.) Первыми жертвами в атомной войне будут женщины и дети. In this sentence the contextual meaning of the word "hostage" is the "victim". This contextual is evidently implicit in its dictionary meaning. A similar contextual meaning cannot be generated by the Russian word «заложник». Thus the word «жертва» is the only possible equivalent.
The word "exploitation" acquires an unexpected contextual meaning in the following sentence: Britain's worldwide exploitation was shaken by colonial Liberation Movement. (D.W.) The contextual meaning was formed metonymically: every colonial system is based on exploitation which is the foundation of colonial power. The Russian word «эксплуатация» can not generate similar contextual meaning. A possible equivalent will also be formed metonymically: Колониальное могущество Англии было потрясено до основания национально-освободительным движением в колониях. Contextual meanings often produce a strong effect, performing a stylistic function of "deceived expectancy". The translator is confronted with a double difficulty: he should avoid toning it down and must not violate the norms of the target-language.
The so-called "non-equivalents" are the words of the source-language which either have no equivalents in the target language or no equivalent denotatum in the target culture. They may be divided into two groups. The first group consists of the so-called realia-words denoting things, objects, features of national life, customs, habits, etc., e.g. House of Commons, thane, coroner, teach-in, drive-in, cricket, etc. The second group embraces words, which for some linguistic reason have no equivalent in the target language: conservationist, readership, glimpse, etc. Three Ways Of Rendering Non-Equivalents 1. By direct borrowing(transliteration or transcription): impeachment - импичмент, thane - тан, mayor - мэр, know-how - ноу- хау. The latter is now used as a term in official documents, trade agreements etc. But the translator should not abuse his right to use loan words and should avoid overburdening the Russian text with numerous and often unnecessary borrowings. This tendency for indiscriminate borrowings of words denoting foreign realia was strongly opposed by the famous Soviet translator I .A. Kashkin. (И.А. Кашкин, «Ложный принцип и неприемлемые результаты», Иностранные языки в школе, М, 1952, № 2.) Such borrowings, as пресс-релиз, тич-ин are frequently not understood by the general reader. It is often better to resort to interpreting translation to make the notion clear: tribalism- племенной строй, press-release - материалы для прессы, teach-in -собрание преподавателей и студентов колледжа или университета для выражения критических взглядов по политическим и социальным вопросам. 2. By translation loans.House of Commons - Палата общин, backbencher - заднескамеечник, brain-drain - утечка мозгов. 3. By descriptive or interpreting translation.Landslide - победа на выборах с огромным перевесом голосов, a stringer (Am.) - частично занятый корреспондент, труд которого оплачивается из расчета количества слов, wishful thinking – принимание желаемого за действительное.
The action of Congress and of North Carolina and Tennessee statesmen, aided by gifts of wise conservationists, have set this land aside as a Great Smoky National Park. (National Geographic, 1964). Эта местность на берегу реки Смоки-хилл была превращена в Национальный парк благодаря усилиям Конгресса и государственный деятелей штатов Северная Каролина и Теннесси, а также
благодаря пожертвованиям любителей природы, понимающих важность ее сохранения.
Semiotics (the science investigating the general properties of sign systems) distinguishes the following types of relations: semantic (sign to object), syntactic (sign to sign) and pragmatic (sign to man). One of the most essential requirements, imposed on translation, is that the two texts (the original and its translation) should be semantically equivalent. The goal of translation is to produce a text, bearing the same relation to the extralinguistic situation as the original. Semantic equivalence of messages does not necessarily imply the semantic identity of each linguistic sign. Semantically equivalent utterances include not only those, made up of the semantically identical signs (as, for instance, He lives in Paris - Он живёт в Париже, but also utterances comprising different sets of signs which in their totality add up to the same type of relationship to the extralinguistic world and denote the same extralinguistic situation (e.g. Wet paint - Осторожно! Окрашено.). Semantic relations affect translation both in the initial stage of analysis and in producing the target-language text. As distinct from semantic relations, syntactic relations are important only at the stage of analysis since relations between linguistic signs are essential for their semantic interpretation (cf. Bill hit John and John hit Bill). But although they may be occasionally preserved in translation, the translator does not set himself this goal. Very often syntactically non-equivalent utterances prove to be semantically equivalent: He was considered invincible - Его считали непобедимым. Pragmatic relations are superimposed on semantic relations and play an equally important role in analyzing the original text and in producing an equivalent text in the target language. Semantically equivalent messages do not necessarily mean the same thing to the source - and target-language receptors, and therefore are not necessarily pragmatically equivalent. The phrases "He made a fifteen-yard end run" and «Он сделал пятнадцатиярдовый рывок по краю» are semantically equivalent for they denote the same situation but the American reader, familiar with American football, will extract far more information from it than his Russian counterpart who would neither understand the aim of the maneuver nor appreciate the football-player's performance. The pragmatic problems, involved in translation, arise from three types of pragmatic relations. The relation of the source-language sender to the original message, the relation of the target-language receptor to the target-language message and the relation of the translator to both messages. The effect of the pragmatic motivation of the original message The first type of relations amounts to the sender's communicative intent or the pragmatic motivation of the original message. The translator, in other words, should be aware whether the message is a statement of fact, a request, a command, an entreaty or a joke. Very often the speaker's communicative intent differs from what the message seems to say. "I don't know" may be not only the statement of fact in which case it would be translated as «Я не знаю», but also an expression of hesitation «Да как вам сказать?». "What gives" in a greeting «Привет!». "Is Mr. Brown there, please" is not a question but a disguised request «Попросите к телефону м-ра Брауна». The effect of the receptor-to-text relation Prof. A. Neubert (DDR) has proposed a classification of texts depending on their orientation towards different types of receptors: texts, intended for "domestic consumption" (local advertising, legislation, home news, etc.), texts, intended primarily for the source-language receptors but having also a universal human appeal (belles-lettres) and texts without any specific national addressee (scientific literature). Typically, in written translation the translator deals with texts, not intended for target- language audiences and therefore subject to pragmatic adaptations. Allowances are made for socio-cultural, psychological and other differences between source- and target-language receptors, particularly differences in their background knowledge. According to E. Nida, snow-white was translated into one of the African languages as "white as the feathers of a white heron". Pragmatic factors may affect the scope of semantic information, conveyed in translating. Differences in background knowledge call for addition or deletion of some information (e.g. "Part of the nuclear station in Cumberland has been closed down" - «Часть атомной электростанции в графстве Камберленд была закрыта». «Как сообщает журнал Ньюсуик» - "According to Newsweek"). Some cultural realia may be translated by their functional analogues («жандарм американского империализма» - "a watchdog of US imperialism" - from a story about the 7th US Fleet).
Allowance should be made for the receptor's professional status and his familiarity with the subject. In texts, intended for specialists source culture realia are more frequently rendered by transcription or transliteration while in texts for the laymen explanatory or descriptive translation is preferred (e.g. impeachment - импичмент, привлечение к ответственности высших должностных лиц; absenteeism - абсентизм, уклонение от участия в выборах.) The effect of the translator's angle of view Another pragmatic factor, relevant to translation, is the socio-psychological and ideological orientation of the translator himself. As far back as 1936 K. I. Chukovsky wrote that "every translator translates himself, i.e. deliberately or inadvertently reflects his class affiliations. And in doing so he does not necessarily set himself the task to falsify the original". This view may be somewhat oversimplified but it is true that although ideally the translator should identify himself with the author, this is not always the case. What is more, sometimes it is impossible. Therefore, classics are re- translated as each generation re-reads them from its own vantage point.
Translation is a process, determined by quite a number of factors. In addition to conveying the semantic information, contained in the text, the denotational meanings
and emotive-stylistic connotations, the translator has to take into account the author's communicative intent, the type of an audience for which the message is intended, its socio-psychological characteristics and background knowledge. A process, governed by so many variables, cannot have a single outcome. What is more, the synonymic and paraphrasing potential of language is so high that there may be several ways of describing the same extralinguistic situation, and even though they may be not quite identical, the differences may be neutralized by the context. It should also be remembered that the translator's decision may vary depending on the receptor (cf. the translation of realia for the specialists and for the laymen) and the purpose of translation. Cf. the old and the modernized version of the Bible: a woman... who had an evil spirit in her that had kept her sick for eighteen years - ... a woman who for eighteen years had been ill from some psychological cause. Cf. also the poetic translation of Shakespeare by Pasternak and the scholarly translation by Prof. Morozov. The problem of translatability Conflicting views have been expressed by linguists concerning the problem of translatability ranging from an entirely negative stand, typical of W. von Humboldt who considered each language an embodiment of national spirit and the nation's world view and therefore regarded translation as an impossible task, to an unqualified positive attitude, found in many contemporary writings on translation. The very fact that translation makes interlingual communication possible is an argument in favor of translatability. Yet it is an oversimplification to claim that every meaningful element of the text is translatable. In his preface to the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Mark Twain says that he had reproduced in the book "painstakingly and with the support of personal familiarity" the shadings of number of dialects (The Missouri Negro dialect, etc.). Naturally none of these fine distinctions can be reflected in the translation. Yet by using low colloquial and substandard forms the translator can give an adequate impression of the character's social and educational status and will thus render the most essential functional characteristics of these dialect features. As compared to the determing semantic and functional properties of the text which are perfectly translatable, the untranslatable elements are marginal and relatively unimportant. Besides, as we shall show in the next lecture, most of the losses can be to some extent compensated for. Therefore, we may speak of sufficient or adequate (though not necessary complete) translatability to permit effective interlingual communication and satisfactory rendering of communicatively relevant information. Levels of equivalence This problem was briefly discussed in the previous lecture in connection with the distinction between semantic and pragmatic equivalence. In the theory of translation different ideas have been put forward concerning the types and levels of equivalence in translation. For instance V. G. Gak and Ju.Levin distinguish the following types of equivalents: formal semantic and situational. Formal equivalence may be illustrated by such cases as. "The sun disappeared behind a cloud" -7<Солнце скрылось за тучей».
Here we find similarity of words and forms in addition to the similarity of meanings. The differences in the plane of expression are, in fact, those determined by overall structural differences between Russian and English: the use of articles in English, the use of the perfective aspect, gender forms, etc. in Russian. Semantic equivalenceexists when the same meanings are expressed in the two languages in a different way: "Troops were airlifted to the battlefield" - «Войска были переброшены по воздуху на поле боя». The English verb airlift contains the same meaning as the Russian phrase «перебросить по воздуху». Although different linguistic devices are used in Russian and in English (a word group and a compound word), the sum of semantic components is the same.
devices used and in the semantic components expressed but, nevertheless, describe the same extralinguistic situation: "to let someone pass" - «уступить дорогу». It should be noted that formal equivalence alone is insufficient. In fact, the above examples pertain to two types of semantic equivalence: 1) semantic equivalence + formal equivalence 2) semantic equivalence without formal equivalence As to situational equivalence,it is, in our view, another variety of semantic equivalence that differs from the first type in that it is based not on the same semantic components but on the equivalence of meanings, made up of different semantic components. In other words, sum of different semantic components may be semantically equivalent (a+b = c+d; upside down = вверх ногами). We shall therefore speak of two types of semantic equivalence: componential (identity of semantic components) and referential (referential equivalence of different semantic components). The latter is preferable to situational equivalencefor descriptions of the same situation are not necessary semantically equivalent. We may thus distinguish the following levels of equivalence: Formal equivalence Semantic equivalence Pragmatic equivalence Tabulated above are the following major types of translation equivalence (formal equivalence + semantic componential equivalence + pragmatic equivalence; semantic-componential and/or referential equivalence + pragmatic equivalence, pragmatic equivalence alone). Pragmatic equivalence, which implies a close fit between communicative intent and the receptor's response, is required at all levels of equivalence. It may sometimes appear alone, without formal or semantic equivalence, as in this case: «С днем рождения» - "Many happy returns of the day". Questions for self-control 1. What lexical groups belong to the complete lexical correspondences? 2. What are the reason of the partial lexical correspondences? 3. Why are there some difficulties in translating Pseudo-international words? 4. What is the combinability problems of translation ? 5. What is equivalence in translation? 6. What if the ways of translation of the words of national colouring ands realiaes. Recommended literature 1. Alan Duff. Translation. Oxford University press. 1972. 2. Barkhudarov L.S. Language and Translation. M.1975. 3. Frederick Fuller. The translation’s handbook. L.N/Y. 4. Catford I.C. A Linguistic theory of translation. L.N/Y. 5. Peter Newmark. Approaches to translation. London. 6. Shvaytser A.D. Translation and Linguistics. M. 1973 7. Levitskaya T.R, Fiterman A.M. The problems of translation on the material of the contemporary English language. M.1974. 8. Nida.E. Towards a science of translation. Leiden. 1964. 9. Roger. N. Bell. Translation and translating . Theory and practice. London, New York. 1995. 10. Salomov G. Tarjima nazariyasiga kirish. T. 1978. 11. Salomov G. Tarjima nazariyasi asoslari. T. 1983.
1. Lexical transformations: general considerations. 2. Lexical substitution (concretization; generalization; antonymic translation; compensation). 3. Addition (supplementation) as a type of lexical transformation. 4. Omission (dropping) as a type of lexical transformation.
Key words: translation, lexical transformation, substitution, concretization, generalization, antonymic translation, compensation, addition, omission.
In order to attain equivalence, despite the differences in formal and semantic systems of two languages, the translator is obliged to do various linguistic transformations. Their tasks are to ensure that the text imparts all the knowledge inferred in the original text, without violating the rules of the language it is translated into. The following three types are considered to be the most suitable for describing all kinds of lexical transformations: 2. Addition (supplementation);
3. Omission (dropping). II. Lexical substitution. 1. In substitutions of lexical units words and stable word combinations are replaced by others, which are not their equivalents. More often 3 cases are met with: a)
Concretization. Some groups of lexical units require concretization in translation. This is due to the difference in the proportion between abstract and desemantized words on the one hand and concrete words on the other in the S and T languages. Concretization (concrete definition) – replacing a word with a broad sense by one of a narrower meaning: E.g.: He is at school – У мактабда уқийди. Он учится в школе; How are things – Ишлар қалай? Как успехи?; Milk goes up – Молоко убежало. He is in the army – У армияда хизмат қилади. Он служит в армии; b) Generalization is the opposite of concretization. In this case a SL word of concrete meaning is rendered by a TL word of general meaning. This type is not so wide-spread and occurs less frequently than concretization. May be this is due to the fact that abstract and desemanticized words in English form, a numerous and diversified group, thus supplying a linguistic base to this type of transformation, whereas generalization appears to be lacking a similar linguistic foundation. Sometimes generalization is resorted to for pragmatic reasons in order to avoid expanded explanations or footnotes. Generalization – replacing a word’s narrow meaning by one with a broad sense. E.g.: A Navajo blanket – жун адиёл; индийское одеяло (шерстяное одеяло);
Shot down – убитый. Here are some more examples of this type of lexical transformation. E.g.: In the Arctic of today the frozen face of the deep is changing and man seeks a scientific explanation for its growth and shrinkage. Ледяной покров Ледовитого океана сейчас меняется, и люди ищут научное объяснение этому явлению. E.g.: Much more than an effective gun control is going to be needed to cure America of the plague of violence that afflicts it. Для того, чтобы избавить Америку от эпидемии насилия, недостаточно одного только строгого контроля над продажей оружия. |
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