Translation. TYPES OF translation. Translation as an act of communication
LECTURES 5. GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS: SUBSTITUTION, ADDITION
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Lecture 1-6
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION
- Types of syntactic relations
- LECTURE 6. PHRASEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATION. DEGREES AND TYPES OF PHRASEOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCES.
- Translation of Phraseological Collocations
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LECTURES 5. GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS: SUBSTITUTION, ADDITION, OMISSION AND TRANSPOSITION. 1. Types of grammatical transformations. 2. Substitution as a type of grammatical transformation. 3. The mechanism of transposition. 4. Omission and addition as types of grammatical transformations.
1.TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS In order to attain the fullest information from one language into another one is obliged to resort numerous interlinguistic lexical and grammatical transformations. Grammatical transformations are as follows: 1. substitution; 2. transposition; 3. omission; 4. supplementation. The cited types of elementary transformations as such are rarely used in the process of translating. Usually they combine with each other, assuming the nature of “complex” interlinguistic transformations. 2. SUBSTITUTION AS A TYPE OF GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATION. By substitution we understand the substitution of one part of speech by another or one form of a word by another. Consequently, there are two kinds of substitutions constituting a grammatical type of transformations; substitution of parts of speech and the grammatical form of a word. Transformation by substitution may be necessitated by several reasons: the absence of one or an other grammatical form or construction in the target language; lack of coincidence in the use of corresponding form and construction as well as lexical reasons – different combinability and use of words, lack of a part of speech with the same meaning. An example of the substitution of a word-form may be the interpretation of the meaning of the grammatical category of postriority of the English verb, which is presented in two particular meanings: absolute posterity /he says he will come / and relative posterity / he said he would come /. Uzbek and Russian verbs do not possess word form of this kind and communicate their meaning with use of other grammatical means: У келишини айтаяпти. Он говорит, что придёт. У келишини айтди. Он сказал, что придёт. In Uzbek the meaning of this category is expressed by a substantivized participle ending in – jak or by the infinitive ending in –(i)sh; in Russian the future tense form of a verb is used. There are two types of substitution of parts of speech; obligatory and non-obligatory. The obligatory substitution is observed when in the target language there are no part of speech corresponding to that used in the source language e.g. the English articles and may be used for emphasis. In cases of the kind it is necessary to substitute them with functionally – adequate means of expression in Uzbek and Russian. E.g. When we were in Majorka, there was a Msr. Leech there and she was telling us most wonderful things about you. ( A.Christie). Биз Малоркада булганимизда, у ерда кандайдир миссис Лич бор эди. У бизга Сиз тугрингизда жуда куп кизикарли нарсаларни айтиб берди. Когда мы были в Малорке, там была некая миссис Лич, которая рассказывала очень много интересного о Вас. In Uzbek and Russian an indefinite pronoun is used for translating the indefinite article. Non obligatory substitution is a substitution undertaken by the needs or demandes of the context: The climb had been easier than he expected. Кутарилиш у кутгандан осонрок булди. Подняться оказалось легче, чем он ожидал. A noun in the English sentence is substituted by infinitives in the Uzbek and Russian languages. 3. TRANSPOSITION “Transposition” (as a type of transformation used in translations) is understood to be the change of position/order) of linguistic elements in the Target language in comparison with a Source language. Transposition (change in the structure of a sentence / is necessitated by the difference in the structure of the language( fixed or free order of words etc), in the semantic of a sentence, and others. There are two types of transpositions; transposition (or substitution) of parts of a sentence and transposition occasioned by the change of types of syntactic connection in composite sentence. Examples: Active defenders of the national interests of their people, the democrats, are at the same time true internationalists.(W. Foster). Демократлар уз халкларининг миллий манфаатларини химоя киладилар ва айни бир вактда улар хакикий интернационалистлар хамдир. Активно защищая национальные интересы своего народа, демократы в то же время являются истенными интернационалистами. The first component of the English attributive word-combination “active defenders” is an adverb while the second becomes the predicate when translated into Uzbek. In Russian the same word – combination is expressed by an adverbial word combination. The means used to express the semantic core of a statement by not be identical. In English the indefinite article, the construction it is ...that ( who) inversions of different kinds are used for this purpose, while the order of words is the most frequent means of expression in Uzbek and Russian: words, communicating new information are not placed at the beginning of the sentence: A big scarlet Rolls Royce had just stopped in front of the local post office. ( A.Christie). Махаллий алока булими олдида кизилрангдаги катта Ролс Ройс автомашинаси тухтади. У местного почтового отделения остановилась комфортабельная автомашина алого цвета Ролс Ройс. In the English sentences the semantic core is expressed by the indefinite article while in Uzbek and Russian it is assigned to the second and third places accordingly. When translating English component sentences into Uzbek and Russian, the principal and subordinate clauses may be transposed. This is explained by the fact that the order of words in compound sentences does not always coincide in the languages considered. Compare: A remarkable air of relief overspread her countenance as soon as she saw me. (R.Stevenson). Мени куриши биланок, унинг юзида енгил тортганлик аломати пайдо булди. Как только она увидела меня, на её лице выразилось чувство облегчения. 4. OMISSION AND ADDITION. As a type of grammatical transformation – omission is necessitated by grammatical redundancy of certain forms in two languages. He raised his hand. У кулини кутарди. Он поднял руку. Addition, as a type of grammatical transformation can be met with in cases of formal inexpressiveness of grammatical or semantic components in the language of the original text. Also, there was an awkward hesitancy at times, as he essayed the new words he had learnt. Баъзида у якиндагина урганган янги сузларини талаффуз килишда хозирланиб, тухтаб коларди. Иногда он запинался, готовясь произнести слова, которые он только недавно выучил. The meaning of the verbal form is expressed in Russian by the words “только недавно”, and in Uzbek by the adverb “якиндагина”. It must be emphasized that the division into lexical and grammatical transformations is, to a great extent, approximate and conditional. In some cases a transformation can be interpreted as one pr another type of elementary transformation. In practice the cited types of lexical and grammatical transformations are seldom met with in “pure form”. Frequently they combine to form complex transformations. GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION Any attempt at word-for-word (literal) translation (apart from very simple and short sentences) is doomed to failure. In the course of translation, it is always necessary to perform various grammatical and lexical changes of transformations to achieve translational equivalence. These transformations can be divided into four types: (1) transpositions: (2) replacements: (3) additions; (4) omissions. It should be borne in mind, however, that this classification is, to a great extent, arbitrary and that in practice it is hardly possible to find these elementary transformations in their "pure form": in most cases they are combined with one another, so that we observe is a combined use of more than one type of transformation. TRANSPOSITIONS What is known as transposition is a change in the order of linguistic elements, such as words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Most often, this due to the necessity preserving in fact what is called "functional sentence perspective", namely, the division of the sentence into two main parts from the point of view of communication: "the known" or "theme" and "the new" or "rheme", in Russian this division of the sentence is usually expressed by means of word order: what is already known or
supposed to be known to the receptor (usually from the preceding context), that is, the "theme" is placed at the beginning of the sentence whereas what is new, that is, communicated for the first time and , therefore, what forms the semantically most important part of the message ("rheme") is placed at the end. In English the word order is arranged, on the whole, along the same lines; however, in certain cases the "theme" is placed at the end and the "rheme", at the beginning due to the fact that the "rheme" is marked differently, namely, by the use of the indefinite article (or, with plural forms of nouns and with uncountable nouns, the "zero article") with the noun which is the subject of the sentence. Therefore, in Russian the word order in such cases must be reversed, that is, the sentence subject which is the "rheme" of the sentence must be placed at the end. Cf.: A boy came in - Вошел мальчик. But: The boy came in - Мальчик вошел. Within a complex sentence, a similar tendency is observed: in Russian, the first place is occupied by that part of the sentence (main or subordinate clause) which must logically precede the second, whereas in English the position of both clauses, though not quite fixed, is in most cases governed by purely syntactical rules; namely, the main clause precedes, in most cases, the subordinate one. This often calls for a change in the order of the clauses in translation, as, for instance: He trembled as he looked up - Взглянув наверх, он задрожал. (Note here also the rendering of the English subordinate clause by means of the Russian verbal adverb; see above, the preceding lecture). Within a passage of discourse, independent sentences are also transposed, as in the following example: "You goin' to court this morning?" asked Jim. We had strolled over. (H. Lee, To kill a Mockingbird). Мы подошли. - Вы в суд пойдете? - спросил Джим. (пер. Н. Галь и Р. Облонской) Here the transposition of the sentence is used to make up for the absence in Russian of the difference between the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect (the action of the second English sentence precedes that of the first). See also below, on additions.
Replacements are by far the most common type of grammatical transformations. Replacements can affect practically all types of linguistic units: word forms, part of speech, sentence elements, sentence types, types of syntactic relations, etc. (a) Word forms Replacement of word forms are quite common in translation. A few examples will suffice: A novel about the lives of common people - роман о жизни простых людей. (replacement of Plural by Singular) He said he knew the man - Он сказал, что знает этого человека. (replacement of Past by Present)
The door was opened by a middle-aged woman - Дверь отворила пожилая женщина. (replacement of Passive by Active). See also the preceding lecture. (b) Parts of Speech This type of replacement is also fairly common. Especially typical is the replacement of English nouns, derived from verbs and denoting actions ("Nomina Actionis") by Russian verbs: It is our hope that... Мы надеемся, что... ...The abandonment by Irene of all the glittering things he had given her.... (J. Galsworthy, In Chancery) - Когда Ирэн оставила все безделушки, которые он ей подарил. The same is also true of the so-called "Nomina Agentis", which in English are usually represented by nouns with the suffix - er. Russian either has no such nouns at all (e.g. corresponding to such English nouns as riser, packer, drinker, sleeper) or uses them to denote people of permanent occupation, as, say whereas in English the word writer may denote simply " a person who writes or has written something", as in "the writer of this note" - тот, кто написал эту записку. Compare: Не is an early riser - Он рано встает. John is a sound sleeper - Джон крепко спит. I'm a very rapid packer - (J.Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye) - Я очень быстро укладываюсь. She is a very good dancer (ib.) - Она очень хорошо танцует. Fairly often, English adjectives are replaced by Russian nouns (in an oblique case or preceded by a preposition): Australian prosperity - (экономическое) процветание Австралии. youthful joblessness - безработица среди молодежи. generational style of life- образ жизни, свойственный данному поколению. (The above examples are very typical of the so-called "journalese") English comparative forms of adjectives such as higher, lower, longer, shorter, better, etc. A frequently replaced by Russian nouns (derived from adjective stems which, in their turn are verbalized) повышение, понижение, увеличение, сокращение, улучшение etc.: "They demand higherwages and better living conditions" - Они требуют повышения заработной платы и улучшения жизненных условий. (c) Sentence elements This is sometimes referred to as syntactic restructurings of the sentence in the process of translation. It consists in changing the syntactic functions of words in a sentence, a process which is usually due to the same tendency as is observed in transpositions, viz., preserving the functional sentence perspective. In English, as in Russian, the "theme" is generally (with some exceptions) placed at the beginning of the sentence; however, this place is, of course, reserved for the sentence subject. As a result the "theme" of the English sentence is, as a rule, also its subject, though semantically it is not always the doer of the action expressed by the predicate verb: it may be its object ("goal") or even denote some adverbial relation such as time, place, cause etc. In Russian the word order is relatively free, therefore the first word or word group within a sentence (its "theme") must not necessarily be at the same time its syntactic subject. Hence the subject of the English sentence is often replaced in Russian by a corresponding secondary element, such as object, adverbial of time, place, cause, etc., with concomitant changes in the syntactic pattern of the whole sentence, often also with necessary lexical changes. See the following examples: He was met by his sister - Его встретила сестра. He was given money - Ему дали денег. The new film is much spoken about - О новом фильме много говорят, (and other passive-active transformation; see above) Last week saw the 500-strong meeting of shop stewards and trade-union officials... (Morning Star,11 .III.75) - На прошлой неделе состоялось собрание цеховых старост и профсоюзных деятелей, в котором приняло участие 500 человек. The tent sleeps six people - В палатке могут спать шесть человек. Rhodesia has hanged five African guerillas - В Родезии были казнены пять африканских партизан. New terrorists attacks have injured six persons - В результате новых нападений террористов шесть человек было ранено. The fog stopped the traffic - Из-за тумана движение транспорта было остановлено. Figure 2 gives a summary of the results of such experiments - На рис. 2 показаны сводные результаты этих экспериментов. It is self-evident that during translation from Russian into English the process is reversed; cf.: s. В комнате установилась тишина - The room turned silent, В радиотехнических устройствах часто встречаются системы из электрических проводов - Radio equipment often includes systems of electronic wires....
A very common transformation is the replacement of a simple sentence by a complex one and visa versa. Thus, while translating from English into Russian it often becomes necessary to render English structures with non-finite verbal forms by means of subordinate clauses, thus turning a simple sentence into complex, as, for instance: I want you to speak English - Я хочу, чтобы Вы говорили по-английски. I heard my mother go out and close the door (Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye) - Я услыхал, как мама вышла из комнаты и закрыла двери. Here is a book for you to read - Вот книга, которую Вы должны прочитать. The General's a good man to keep away from (S.Heym. The Crusaders) - Генерал, конечно, неплохой человек, но лучше от него держаться подальше. A subtype of this transformation is known as unification, or, conversely, division of sentences in translation, that is, a replacement of two simple sentences by one complex or compound and visa versa; cf.: Thousands of Algerians tonight fled from the dead city of Orleansville after a 12- second earthquake had ripped through central Algeria, killing an estimated 1.100 people. (Daily Worker) This is a typical "lead", that is, the first sentence (and the first paragraph) of a news item which contains the bulk of the information the details of which are given below in the main text of the report (See the lectures on style). Such a device is alien to Russian newspaper articles, which makes it necessary to divide the English sentence into two or more Russian sentences, as below: Сегодня ночью в центральных районах Алжира произошло землетрясение, длившееся двенадцать секунд. Число жертв, по предварительным подсчетам, составляет 1100 человек. Тысячи жителей бежали из полностью разрушенного города Орлеанвилля. (Note also a change in the order of sentences). More rarely, unification of two or more sentences into one complex or compound sentence takes place, as in the following case: The only thing that worried me was our front door. It creaks like a bastard (Sallinger, The Catcher in the Rye) - Одно меня беспокоило - наша парадная дверь скрипит как оголтелая. (e) Types of syntactic relations Both English and Russian have such types of syntactic relations as co-ordination and subordination. However, the former is more characteristic of spoken Russian; hence it is often necessary or desirable to replace subordination of sentences by co- ordination while translating from English into Russian; cf.: ...He had a new father whose picture was enclosed... (H. Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird)- У него новый папа -это он снят на карточке.
So I started walking way over east, where the pretty cheap restaurant are, because I didn't want to spend a lot of dough. (Salinger, the Catcher in the Rye) - Я пошёл к восточным кварталам, где были дешёвые рестораны: не хотелось тратить много денег.
From a purely, grammatical point of view this transformation is optional; however, taking into account what was said concerning the relative frequency of grammatical forms (see the preceding lecture), such transformations are necessary if we want our translation to sound "natural". Likewise, both English and Russian make use of syndetic and asyndetic co-ordinate structures, but their relative frequencies differ: Russian, especially spoken Russian, prefers asyndetic co-ordination in multi-member structures where English often employs the syndetic type, as, for instance: All I have in it is two dresses and my moccasins and my underwear and socks and some other things. (J. Salinger) В нем только два платья, туфли, белье, носки и всякие мелочи, In the original, the conjunction and is used four times while in the Russian translation it appears only once, before the last constituent, the rest being joined asyndetically. Cf.: also Своё мастерство демонстрировали экипажи судов, лётчики, парашютисты. Masterly performance was displayed by boat crews, airmen and paratroopers. ADDITIONS Additions are caused by various factors. Very often they are necessitated by what may be called "lexical incompleteness" of certain word groups in the source language. Thus, in English in many cases words are omitted that can be easily restored from the context, while in Russian their actual presence in the word is necessary, which calls for
additions in
translation; compare: pay claim -требование о повышении заработной платы; gun license - удостоверение на право ношения оружия; oil talks - переговоры по вопросу о нефти; solid engine - двигатель на твёрдом топливе; the Watergate judge - судья, назначенный для рассмотрения Уотергейтского дела. Sometimes, additions are required to compensate for the lack of grammatical forms in the target language. Thus, the lack of plural forms of the corresponding nouns in Russian calls for lexical additions when translating the following phrases: workers of all industries - рабочие всех отраслей промышленности; modern weapons - современные виды оружия; enemy defenсes - оборонительные сооружения противника; other philosophies - другие
философские направления (теории). OMISSIONS Omissions are the reverse of additions and are used to ensure a greater degree of what is called "compression", that is, reducing the redundancy of the text by omitting words which can be easily restored from the context. Thus, the following sentence from J. Salinger's novel: "So I paid my check and all. Then I left the bar and went out where the telephones were" is translated by R. Rait-Kovaleva as: «Я расплатился и пошёл к автоматам». The words "left the bar" are omitted because of their redundancy (the bar was mentioned in the preceding context and "leaving" is implied by the subsequent use of "went out"). Note also other transformations here, such as unification of sentences and replacement of a complex sentence by a simple one, all of which greatly reduce redundancy of the original text. For other examples of additions and omissions, as well as of other transformations, see also Л. С. Бархударов, Язык и перевод, гл. 5. QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CONTROL: 1. What are the main types of grammatical transformations? 2. What is the mechanism of substitution? 3. What is the mechanism of transposition? 4. In what cases do we apply one of the following grammatical transformations: omission or addition? RECOMMENDED LITERATURE: 1. Alan Duff. Translation. Oxford University press. 1972. 2. Barkhudarov L.S. Language and Translation. M.1975. 3. Frederick Fuller. The translation’s handbook. L.N/Y. 4. Catford I.C. F Linguistic theory of translation. L.N/Y. 5. Peter Newmark. Approaches to translation. London. 6. Pragmatics and translation. M.1990 7. Levitskaya T.R, Fiterman A.M. The problems of translation on the material of the contemporary English language. M.1974. 8. Language Transfer Cross – Linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge University Press. 1993. 9. Nida.E. Towards a science of translation. Leiden. 1964 10. Nida.E. Linguistics and ethnology in translation problems. Language structure and Translation. Atanford. 1975. 11. Roger. N. Bell. Translation and translating . Theory and practice. London, New York. 1995. 12. Shvaytser A.D. Translation and Linguistics. M. 1973 13. Salomov G. Tarjima nazariyasiga kirish. T. 1978. 14. Salomov G. Tarjima nazariyasi asoslari. T. 1983. 15. Tommola Q. Translation as a psycho-linguistic Process. L.1986.
PROBLEMS FOR DICUSSION: 1. Complete conformities in phraseological units. 2. Partial conformities in phraseological units. 3. Translation of phraseological units with n phraseological conformities: ➢ verbatum translation; ➢ translation by analogy; ➢ descriptive translation. Key words: falsely identical units, idioms, conformity, A verbatim (word for word) translation. translation by analogy, descriptive translation. Translating a phraseological unit is not an easy matter as it depends on several factors: different combinability of words, homonymy, polysemy, synonymy of phraseological units and presence of falsely identical units, which makes it necessary to take into account of the context. Besides, a large number of phraseological units have a stylistic – expressive component in meaning, which usually has a specific national feature. The afore-cited determines the necessary to get acquainted with the main principles of the general theory of phraseology. The following types of phraseological units may be observed: phrasemes and idioms. A unit of constant context consists of a dependent and constant indicators may be called a phraseme. An idiom is a unit of constant context which is characterized by an integral meaning of the whole and by weakened meanings of the components, and in which the dependant and the indicating elements are identical and equal to the whole lexical structure of the phrase. Any type of phraseological unit can be presented as a definite micro- system. In the process of translating of phraseological units functional adequate linguistic units are selected / by comparing two specific linguistic principles. These principles reveal elements of likeness and distinction. Certain parts of these systems may correspond in form and content (completely or partially) or have no adequacy. The main types of phraseological conformities are as follows: I.
Complete conformities II.
Partial conformities III.
Absence of conformities
I. COMPLETE CONFORMITIES Complete coincidence of form and content in phraseological units is rarely met with. 1. Black frost / phraseme/ - кора совук - сильный мороз 2. To bring oil to fire/idiom/ - алангага ёг куймок - подлить масло в огонь 3. To lose one’s head/ idiom/
- гангиб колмок - потерять голову I. PARTIAL CONFORMITIES. Partial conformities of phraseological units in two languages assume lexical, grammatical and lexico- grammatical differences with identity of meaning and style, i.e. they are figuratively close but differ in lexical composition, morphologic number and syntactic arrangement of the order of words. One may find: 1) Partial lexical conformities by lexic parameters/ lexical composition/. a)- To get out of bed on the wrong foot / idiom/
- Чап ёни билан турмок - Встать с левой ноги b)- To have one’s heat in one’s boots /idiom/ - Юраги оркасига кетмок - Душа в пятку ушла c) – To lose one’s temper / phraseme/ - Сабри чидамок - Выйти из себя, потерять терпениe d)- To dance to somebody’s pipe / idiom/ - Бировнинг ногорасига уйнамок - Играть под чью –либо дудочку 2) Partial conformities by grammatical parameters 3) Differing as to morphological arrangement / number/ a. To fish in troubled waters./ idiom/ - лойка сувда балик тутмок - ловить рыбу в мутной воде b. From head to foot / idiom/ - бошдан оёгигача - с ног до головы c. To agree like cats and dogs / phraseme/ - ит мушукдек яшамок - жить как кошка с собакой d. To keep one’s head /idiom/ - узини йукотмаслик - не потерять голову 4. Duffering as to syntactical arrangement a. Strike while the iron is hot. - темирни кизигида бос - куй железо пока горячо b. Egyptian darkness - коп-коронги зимистон / гордек коронги / - тьма египетская c. Armed to teeth - тиш – тирногигача куролланган - вооружённый до зубов d. All is not gold that glitters - барча ялтираган нарса олтин эмас - не всё золото, что блестит 3.ABSENCE OF CONFORMITIES Many English phraseological units have no phraseological conformities in Uzbek and Russian. In the first instance this concerns phraseological units based on realiae. When translating units of this kind it is advisable to use the following types of translation: A. A verbatim word for word translation. B. Translation by analogy. C. Descriptive translation. A. VERBATUM TRANSLATION is possible when the way of thinking / in thе phraseological unit / does not bear a specific national feature. 1. To call things by their true names / idiom / - хар нарсани уз номи билан атамок - называть все вещи своими именами 2. The arms race / phraseme/ - куролланиш пойгаси - гонка вооружений 3. Cold war / idiom/ - совук уруш - холодная война
В. TRANSLATING BY ANALOGY; this way of translating is resorted to when the phraseological unit has a specific national realiae. 1. “ Dick” said the dwarf, thrashing his head in at the door – “ my pet, my pupil, the apple of my eye hey”. /Ch. Dickens “ The Old Curiosity Shop” ch 1 / idiom//. - “Дик, азизим, толибим, кузимнинг нури”- хурсандлигидан хитоб килди митти одам эшикка бошини сукиб - “Дик, – воскликнул карлик, просовывая голову в дверь,- мой любимец, мой ученик, свет моих очей” 2. To pull somebody’s leg / idiom/ - мазах килмок - одурачить кого-либо. C. DESCRIPTIVE TRANSLATION i.e. translating phraseological units by a free combination of words is possible when the phraseological unit has a particular national feature and has no analogy in the language it is to be translated into.
1. To enter the house / phraseme / - парламент аъзоси булмок - стать членом парламента
2. To cross the flour of the house / idiom/ - бир партиядан бошка партияга утиб кетмок
- перейти с одной партии в другую Phraseological units may be classified into three big groups: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological collocations. Phraseological fusions are usually rendered by interpreting translation: to show the white feather - быть трусом; to dine with Duke Humphry - остаться без обеда. Sometimes they have word-equivalents: red tape - волокита, to pull one's leg - одурачивать, мистифицировать. The meaning of a phraseological fusion may often be rendered by a series of alternative phrases, e.g. to go the whole hog -делать что-либо основательно, доводить до конца, не останавливаться на полумерах, идти на всё (словарь А.Кунина). According to the principles of their translation phraseological unities can be divided into four groups; 1) Phraseological unities having Russian counterparts with the same meaning and simailar images. They can often be traced to the same prototype: biblical, mythological, etc. All that glitters is not gold. - He всё золото, что блестит. As a man sows, so he shall reap. - Что посеешь, то и пожнёшь. 2) Phraseological unities having the same meaning but expressing it through a - different- image. То buy a pig in a poke. - Купить кота в мешке. Phraseological units of the source-language sometimes have synonymous equivalents in the target-language. The choice is open to the translator and is often determined by the context. Between the devil and the deep sea - между двух огней, между молотом и наковальней; в безвыходном положении. In the absence of a correlated phraseological unity the translator resorts to interpreting translation. A skeleton in the closet (cupboard) - Семейная тайна, неприятность, скрываемая от посторонних. Target-language equivalents having a local colour should be avoided. "To carry coals to Newcastle" should not be translated by the Russian - ездить в Тулу со своим самоваром. In this case two solutions are possible: a) to preserve the image of the English phraseological unity - ездить в Ньюкасл со своим углём, b) to resort to interpreting translation - заниматься бесполезным делом. 3) Phraseological unities having no equivalents in Russian are rendered by interpreting translation. Little pitches have long ears. - Дети лобят слушать разговоры взрослых. 4) Phraseological unities having word equivalents: shake a leg - отплясывать, hang fire-мешкать,медлить,задерживаться. Translation of Phraseological Collocations Phraseological collocations are motivated but they are made up of words possessing specific lexical valency which accounts for a certain degree of stability in such word groups.
They may be translated by corresponding phraseological collocations of the target-language: to take part - принимать участие, to throw a glance - бросить взгляд. They may be also translated by a word (to take part - участвовать) or a free word group (to take one's temperature - измерить температуру).
There are three types of categories regarded as part and parcel of the phraseology of any language. According to prof. A.V.Kunin, they are: · phraseological units, or idioms, with completely or partially transferred meanings, e.g. a smart Aleck; Tom, Dick and Harry; Do you see any green in my eye? · semi-idioms that have both literal and transferred meanings, e.g. chain reaction (a term in physics and a figurative expression), lay down one’s arms (a military term and a figurative expression); · phraseomatic units have literal or phraseomatically bound meanings, e.g. in a hurry, safe and sound, pay attention to smth [Кунин 1984]. The characteristic feature of all the three groups is their stability which draws them together and affects the way of their translation. A translator dealing with set expressions is confronted with some problems that are connected with their properties: 1) complicated semantic structure of phraseological units. It is made up of several components of meaning – figurative or denotational meaning, that is its actual sense; imagery component, i.e. literal meaning of a phraseological meaning; emotive charge; stylistic reference; evaluative component. Translation should reproduce all the components of meaning which is not easy to do since any of these components may be nationally specific, cf. for a rainy day – на чёрный день (imagery component); задавать тон (both negative and positive) – to set an example in smth (positive), to set the tune (negative); Can the leopard change his spots? (literary idiom) – Чёрного кобеля не отмоешь добела (highly colloquial, verging on the vulgar). 2) Polysemy of many set expressions, often containing mutually contradictory meanings, e.g. no love lost – a) неприязнь, враждебное отношение, ненависть друг к другу; б) взаимная симпатия, взаимная страсть, привязанность (outdated). 3) Similarity in the surface structure, difference in meaning: a SL idiom and a TL idiom may be alike in their form, but absolutely different in meanings, cf. to lead smb by the nose (to control completely, to make smb do whatever you want) – водить к-л за нос. 4) There may be similar, though not identical SL units that should not be misinterpreted, cf. to
5 ) An idiom can resemble a non-idiomatic expression, that is a free word group, but they have no common components of meaning, cf. to appeal to the country – распустить
These factors account for the major problems that arise in dealing with idioms which can be entered in special translation dictionaries of phraseological units and discussed on the basis of parallel texts of fiction. In the latter case idioms are used not only in their conventional form, but they often undergo different modifications which calls for special additional means of their adequate translation. The most authoritative translation dictionaries of English and Russian phraseological units are the Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms by S. Lubenskaya (M., 2004), English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary by prof A.V.Kunin (M., 1984); Russian-English Dictionary of Proverbs and Sayings by prof. S.S.Kuzmin and N.L.Shadrin; Translator’s Russian-English Phraseological Dictionary by prof. S.S.Kuzmin (M., 2001). The compilers of these dictionaries have resorted in translation of phraseological units to two basic means of translation in TL: phraseological and non-phraseological. · To phraseological correspondences in TL refer: 1) (mono)equivalents, i.e., a TL expression coincides with the SL unit in meaning and in imagery, e.g. the thread of Ariadna – нить Ариадны, to kill time – убивать время, fair play – честная игра; 2) analogue, i.e., a set expression in TL that is equivalent to the SL in meaning, but differs completely or partially in its imagery. In such cases the authors use a symbol of approximate translation @ before a Russian analogue, e.g. to have one’s heart in one’s mouth @ сердце упало, to know the ropes - знать как свои пять пальцев, to see eye to eye with smb- сходиться во взглядах; the naked eye @ невооружённый глаз; 3) a selected synonym, i.e. a set of TL synonyms which can be used in translation either interchangeably or depending on the situation, e.g. to pay the devil (coll) – трудная задача (neutr), @ сам чёрт ногу сломит (coll), кой-кому туго приходится (neutr), творится что-то невероятное (neutr); 4) antonymic translation, i.e. rendering the meaning of a negative construction by means of a positive construction or vice versa, e.g. don’t count your chickens before they are hatched – цыплят по осени считают, не на того напал – you’ve picked the wrong person. Non-phraseological means of translation of set expressions include the following: 1) loan translation, i.e. a word-for-word translation of a SL idiom which has no ready correspondence in TL. This happens when a translator wants to retain the nationally specific imagery of the SL expression which may also be culturally relevant, e.g. as dead as a doormail – ‘мертвый как дверной гвоздь’, as tight as a drum – ‘тугой как барабан’ . This means of translation can be used only in cases when it does not destroy the sense of an original expression and does not result in a misleading phrase, e.g. Чем дальше в лес, тем больше
2) descriptive or free translation, i.e. translation of a SL expression by conveying its meaning by means of a free word combination, e.g. cross the floor of the house – парл. перейти из
3) translation by words, i.e. as a result of such a translation the levels of a SL unit of translation and its TL correspondence do not coincide, e.g. tit for tat – отплата, a stroke of
The actual practice of lexicographic translation shows that different means of translation do not compete with one another, but very frequently they are used side by side to ensure the greatest possible reflection of various aspects of a phraseological unit, e.g. King Log – Король Чурбан (loan-translation with stylistic compensation), (рохля, тюфяк (analogues); пассивный человек, не умеющий использовать представившейся ему возможности (descriptive). The compilers of translation dictionaries of idioms stick to the principle that there should be for a reader a free choice of correspondences in order to make an adequate decision for a particular occasion. For this reason they resort to various combinations of translation means mentioned above, cf. to twiddle one’s thumbs – бездельничать, лодырничать (word-level correspondences); сидеть сложа руки, бить баклуши, лодыря гонять, валять дурака, почивать на лаврах, палец о палец не ударить (selected synonym); ни шатко, ни валко (analogue); to run before one can walk – ‘начать бегать, не научившись ходить (loan translation); пытаться сделать что-либо, не имея достаточной подготовки (descriptive translation) Apart from well-established means of translating set expressions there are some interesting solutions to idiomatic expressions which have no ready correspondences in TL. S.S. Kuzmin uses in his dictionary some additional ways of translation: a) creates his own correspondences which are rhymed, e.g. А Васька слушает, да ест – The
b) uses components of some ready English correspondence to make his translation sound idiomatic, e.g. что бог послал – be told not to look a gift horse in the mouth. The analysis of translation of idioms used in texts of fiction shows that a translator faces a number of difficulties: 1) when there are sets of correspondences in TL created by different ways it is necessary to make an appropriate choice of a correspondence which might be the best for a given context both in meaning, style and form, e.g. cf. a king’s ransom – огромная сумма, миллион (neutr); златые горы (usu in negative sentences); чёртова уйма (coll). E.g. It was no fortune or anything; I’d spent a king’s ransom in about two lousy weeks –Во всяком случае, не так уж много. За какие-нибудь две недели я истратил чёртову уйму. 2) Sometimes none of the dictionary correspondences are suitable for a given context, then it is necessary to look for a contextual substitution that is appropriate for a case, e.g. to set the
cf “We make one big party. We all go to London to set the Thames on fire” (D. Du Maurier, The Breaking Point) - «Составим большую компанию и отправимся в Лондон. Кутнём
colloquial unit. Another example: the phrase ‘You can’t eat your cake and have it’ is translated in A.V. Kunin’s dictionary in the following ways: нельзя делать одновременно две
illiterate rough man it is impossible to use either of the dictionary correspondences for semantic and stylistic reasons, cf. Что же поделаешь? Что с возу упало, то пропало. 3) A translator should be aware of the so-called pseudoequivalents which refer to idioms in two languages that are similar in their sense, but nationally specific in their imagery and form and possess a cultural colouring, e.g. They ping-pong people from Paul to Peter – Иван кивает на Петра, а Пётр на Ивана. In a text such correspondences can’t be regarded as interchangeable as they are nationally peculiar and dependent upon a certain cultural background, so they would seem unnatural and out of place against a different linguacultural background, cf. После поучительной беседы сотрудники милиции и спецслужб отпустили Машу-растеряшу домой. – The police and special branch officers gave that dizzy Miss Lizzy a few tips and let her go home. 4) Phraseological units are often not merely reproduced in speech, but quite frequently they are modified in order to enhance their expressive properties. Various modifications of set expressions in speech pose additional problems to a translator. E.g. Армию рубят – от ВДВ щепки летят. This is a complicated case of the modified phraseological unit which is based on its literal interpretation. In translation into English it is possible to retain a hint at the English phraseological unit You cannot make an omelette without breaking eggs and render
the complicated structure of the English idiom in the following way Making Reduction: Breaking Air-Borne Forces. It must be stressed that the authors of parallel dictionaries of idioms realize that in many cases it is insufficient to merely translate their linguistic meaning in order to understand all the implications and associations which are culturally relevant. That’s why very important information is supplied in linguistic and extralinguistic commentaries. e.g. Thumbs up! – Отлично! Чудесно! Вот это здорово! (восклицание, выражающее удовлетворение или удовольствие) – comment on the character and the sphere of usage; sabbatical year – творческий отпуск (каждый седьмой год преподаватель американского университета свободен от лекций и аудиторных занятий ) – extralinguistic information about the educational system in the USA; a Mark Tapley – Марк Тэпли – человек, не унывающий ни при каких обстоятельствах (по имени персонажа в романе Ч.Диккенса «Мартин Чеззлвит») - information about associations connected with the literary image of the novel QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CONTROL: 1.What is a phraseological init and what types of them do you know? 2 .What is understood under conformities in phraseological units?
Is it rare or often met? 3. What cases refer to partial conformities? 4. What are the mechanisms of translating phraseological units with no phraseological conformities? 5. In what cases can we apply descriptive translation?
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE: 1.Barkhudarov L.S. Language and translation. M. 1975. 2. Shvaytser A.D. Translation and linguistics .M. 1973. 3. Levitskaya T.R, Fiterman A.M. The problem of Translation on the material of the contemporary English language. M. 1974 4.Salomov G. Tarjima nazariyasiga kirish. T. 1978. 5.Salomov G. Tarjima nazariyasi asoslari. T. 1983. 6.Мусаев К. Лексико-фразеологические вопросы художественного перевода. Т.: 1980
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