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part of communication, indeed, a part of literacy. In various countries, I
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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
part of communication, indeed, a part of literacy. In various countries, I have found invariably the median number of numbers on a newspaper page is somewhere between 120 and 150. The mean number of numbers is far higher – the last time I calculated it for a Chicago newspaper, the mean number of numbers on a page was over 500, due to the plethora of numbers on the sports, weather, and business pages, and in the want ads. These numbers are used in many ways: as counts, with a wide variety of counting units, and often large; more often as measures than counts; in sca- les of various kinds; as ratios; both interval and single-number estimates and 318 exact values. There are various kinds of graph, sometimes daily analyses of lotteries, results of polls, many stock averages, and sports statistics, all of which could be simplified at times if algebraic formulas were used. There are advertisements with discounts given as percents, annual percentage rates for investments, dimensions of the articles being offered, computer specifi- cations, powers of zoom lenses, and other technical information. An exhaustive listing of numbers in the newspaper is not needed to make the point that to read a newspaper today requires that the reader be able to process mathematical information to an extent far beyond that required even one generation ago. It is often said that we are in an information age; it is the case that much of that information is numerical or pictorial, and thus is mathematical. Concomitant with the evolution of arithmetic as a part of literacy has come a major change in the views of society toward who can be competent in these things. No longer is arithmetic seen as the province of a few. In pla- ces where arithmetic is a part of literacy, no longer is it seen as a subject that is so abstract that only a few can learn. In these places, competence in arithmetic skills is no longer viewed as an indicator of intelligence. 6. THE CURRENT STATE OF ALGEBRA AS A PART OF LITERACY Could we replace "arithmetic" in the previous sections by any mathematics other than arithmetic? A reasonable first candidate is algebra, since, in some countries, algebra is already taught to all. But algebra does not have nearly the status that arithmetic has in society. Many well-educated people ask why algebra was required for them in school; they would never ask that about arithmetic. Many people have been taught algebraic skills and perhaps its properties, and they may have even been taught some graphical representa- tions, but they never were taught the uses, and they do not see the societal need for all to learn algebra. Algebra is viewed by many people as so ab- stract that it does not have uses of its own. If we view the newspaper as signaling what mathematics is needed by so- ciety, then we see how far we have to go before algebra becomes viewed as a part of literacy. There may be thousands of numbers, and tables, and graphs, and charts in newspapers, but it is seldom that one finds any algebra. It is unusual to find one overt example of algebra in a newspaper, despite the fact that there are simple formulas underlying many of the sports statis- tics, discounts, and business data. So if algebra becomes a part of literacy, it is unlikely to be the algebra that is now being taught. Indeed, whereas the level of political analysis one finds in newspapers is often quite deep and requires a thorough knowledge of a nation's govern- mental system, even the simplest algebra – even when studied by the vast majority of people in a nation – is taboo. (Stephen Hawking tells the story of how the publisher of A Brief History of Time did not want any formulas ZALMAN USISKIN 319 in the book at all, and only reluctantly agreed to the inclusion of ) When such mathematics is presented to a popular audience, it is often pre- ceded by cautionary statements such as "For those who understand such things ..." Unlike arithmetic, algebra is still viewed as the province of a few, and proficiency in algebra is often considered as a sign of intelligence by those who do not use it. 7. WILL ALGEBRA FOR SOME BECOME ALGEBRA FOR ALL? It is appropriate to ask whether we can ever expect algebra to become as much a part of literacy for future generations as arithmetic is now.Will al- gebra ever be as universal as arithmetic? Following the history of arithmetic, the first component in the question of algebra for all would have to be a perceived need by society for that algebra. I believe the general view of the nonmathematical public is that algebra is certainly required for future engineers or scientists or for work with com- puters, statistics, economics, or any field that seems dependent on numbers; or for any field that uses science, such as medicine. The general public might also realize that the building trades, such as carpentry or plumbing, use algebraic formulas. It may well be that this is enough to ensure that al- gebra should be and will be taught to all. A second argument for major attention to algebra and higher mathematics for the entire populace has appeared recently in the policy arenas of the ad- vanced industrialized countries. It goes somewhat as follows: The economic well-being of a country must be based on having jobs for its people. The new jobs in the 21st century will be based on achievements in sectors such as biotechnology, telecommunications, computers and software, robotics and machine tools, and microelectronics. Better products in these areas re- quire statistical quality control. To have statistical quality control, workers need to understand it, which requires that they have studied statistics and operations research, and for these a person needs a considerable amount of mathematics (Thurow, 1991). Thus, whereas, in the past, knowledge of this mathematics has been seen as an individual need, now the knowledge is seen as a societal need. That makes it even more likely that algebra will be for all students. For a couple of hundred years there has existed the mathematical lan- guage and tools that make universal competence in algebra a reasonable ex- pectation. Worldwide we use the Latin alphabet in elementary algebra; we use coordinate graphs to picture functions.The big change – within the past 7 years – is that there now exists technology that makes the graphing of functions and data, and even curve-fitting and data analysis accessible to all, with the ability to be taken anywhere one has a pocket, and user-friendly enough so that one does not need to know huge amounts of mathematics in order to use the technology. Not only is algebra more accessible, but so is elementary analysis. MATHEMATICS FOR ALL 320 The widely available technology does not yet cover all of algebra. There does not yet exist a symbolic algebra calculator that is easy to use and cheap, that can solve literal equations as well as numerical ones, a simpler form of Derive, Mathematica, or Maple, for under $100. Yet this technol- ogy seems certain to come. For this reason, I believe that algebra will be- come a subject for all, but not the same algebra that we now teach, and with it will come many of the concepts of elementary analysis and calculus. 8. WILL ALGEBRA FOR ALL BECOME ALGEBRA FOR SOME? As with arithmetic, the technology does not necessarily suggest an increased emphasis on algebra in schools. Because the purpose of technology is to avoid work, to make it possible for us to direct machines to do tasks even when we do not understand how the machine works, the same technological advances that have made it possible to do great amounts of algebra easily may also make it less necessary for people to learn certain algebra. For example, suppose we wished to predict future population from recent data and an exponential model. The data can be plotted without knowing al- gebra. Transforming the variable P to log P can be done simply by writing a formula if one is using a spreadsheet or by pressing a button if one is using a calculator, and then the points on the second graph can be found. The line of best fit can be found without any algebra; simply press another few buttons. This line can be used for predicting the population from the graph. Thus a problem whose solution in the past might have required a considerable amount of algebraic skill now can be solved by someone who has none of the traditional skills. Instead, needed are the facility of graphing functions using an automatic grapher and knowledge of the inverse relationship bet- ween the exponential and logarithmic functions. On the most recent graphing calculators, there exists a key that solves any type of a large number of equations arithmetically, by successive approxi- mation methods hidden from the user. A student who has this calculator does not need to know the quadratic formula in order to obtain the solutions to a quadratic equation to the nearest thousandth; nor does the student need to know the inverse trigonometric functions in order to solve a trigonomet- ric equation. Mathematics educators often make the assumption that an increasingly technological world requires more and more mathematics for all (consider, e.g., NCTM's Algebra for Everyone, 1990). However, what may be the case is that such a technological world requires more and more mathematics for Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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