Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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233 234 MICROWAVE-ASSISTED CATALYTIC OXIDATION OF ALCOHOLS TO CARBONYL COMPOUNDS are mainly used in MW systems do not accurately monitor the sample temperature and usually tend to understate its value. Hence, a proper calibration (apart from a fast response) of the IR sensors is required to help overcome this problem. In addition, the sample temperature profile is inhomogeneous within the reaction vessel [9]. Therefore, the interaction of MW irradiation with a reaction mixture is rather complex and the nature of the eventual advantages of the MW irradiation heating method is subject to debate. However, it is known [10] that the simultaneous application of a catalyst and MW irradiation in some cases has a pronounced synergistic effect in comparison with the catalyst and the MW applied separately, or in comparison with the catalysis under CH. This synergistic effect also deserves particular attention in the important and widely used oxidation of alcohols to the corresponding carbonyl compounds. Thus, the main aim of this chapter is to illustrate recent advances in homogeneous and heterogeneous MW-assisted catalytic oxidation of alcohols. For clarity, the homogeneous and heterogeneous processes are discussed separately.
Effective solvent-free peroxidative oxidations of 1-phenylethanol (Scheme 18.1) and/or some secondary aliphatic alcohols toward the corresponding ketones with tert-butylhydroperoxide (TBHP) under MW irradiation, catalyzed by copper(II)-alkoxy-triazapentadienato (Cu II -TAP) [10, 11] complexes 1, 2, dicopper(II)-aminopolyalcoholate (Cu II -APA) [12] complexes 3, 4, arylhydrazone- β-diketonate (CuII-AHBD) complex 5 [13], mixed-N,S copper(II) and iron(II) complexes 6–11 [14] and by the tetranuclear copper(II) arylhydrazone of malononitrile complex 12 [15], have been achieved (Scheme 18.2). In general, the utilization of MW irradiation instead of CH significantly enhances the conversion of the alcohols, that is, MW-assisted reactions performed in the presence of Cu II -TAP and Cu II -APA complexes 1a, 2a, 2b, 2c, and 4 led to 100%, 90%, 95%, 81%, and 92% yields of acetophenone from 1-phenylethanol in 30 min at 80 ◦ C (Table 18.2, runs 2, 9–11, and 18), while the corresponding yields under CH are 4%, 72%, 78%, 55%, and 51% (Table 18.2, runs 3, 13–15, and 20) [10a, 11, 12]. It is also worth mentioning that under MW irradiation in the presence of 1a and 4, yields of circa 58% and 91% were achieved in 15 min (Table 18.2, runs 1 and 17, respectively) [10a, 12]. When hydrogen peroxide was used as oxidant, quite a low yield of acetophenone was obtained in the presence of 1a at 80 ◦ C (Table 18.2, run 7) [10a] (Scheme 18.3). The activity of the symmetrical Cu-TAP complexes appear to decrease with the increase in the number of carbon atoms in the alkoxy substituents (Table 18.2, runs 2, 6, and 8) [10a, 11]. The activities of the studied unsymmetrical Cu-TAP complexes mainly depend on their charge, neutral complexes being less active (Table 18.2, runs 9, 10 vs 11, 12) [11]. The Cu II -AHBD complex 5 and the mixed-N,S copper(II) complexes 7 and 8 are apparently less active and led to circa 31–39% of acetophenone yields in 30 min (Table 18.2, runs 21, 24, and 25) [13, 14b]. The activity of the iron(II) complexes (6, 9–11) is lower, the overall yields not exceeding 21% (Table 18.2, runs 23, 26–28) [14]. However, the combination of 6–11 with a catalyst promoter, such as, pyrazine-2-carboxylic acid (Hpca), pyridine (py), or pyridazine (pydz), leads to a significant increase of the acetophenone yield, for example, for the systems
the yield of circa 74% was achieved in 5 min with corresponding turnover frequency (TOF) value of 4440 (Table 18.1, run 9) [14b]. For the systems in Table 18.1, the yields obtained in MW-assisted processes are also superior to those obtained under CH, that is, for the 6-Hpca system, an acetophenone yield of circa 26 % was achieved in 30 min, while utilization of MW irradiation allowed to obtain a yield of 76% (Table 18.1, run 2 vs 1). CH 3 OH Cu(II) or Fe(II) catalyst TBHP (2 equiv), MW, 80
°C, 30 min CH 3 O MW-yield: 76–100% CH-yield: 4–78% (5 mmol)
Scheme 18.1 Oxidation of 1-phenylethanol under MW irradiation or conventional heating (CH) [10a, 11–15]. HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS 235 H N HN N Cu N H NH N OR OR RO RO R = Me (1a), Et(1b), nPr(1c) H N HN N Cu N H NH N OR NH 2 H 2 N RO R = Me (2a), nPr(2b) H N
N H Cu N H NH H N OR NH 2 H 2 N RO R = Me (2c), nPr(2d) 2+ (CH 3 COO)
2 O Cu O N N HO Me Cu N N OH Me C S C S O Cu O N N HO Et Cu N N OH Et N N N N (3) (4) O N N C C O O CH 2 C H 2 C H 3 C CH 3 Cu H 2 O NO 2 (5) N S
Fe Cl Cl N (6) N N
N Cu OTf
(OTf) (7) N N
N Cu OTf
(OTf) (8) N N
N Fe OTf OTf (9) NH NH
S S Cl Cl (10) N Fe
S S Cl Cl (11) N O
Cu N N N C 2 H 5 O OH 2 N O O Cu N N N OC 2 H 5 H H N O O Cu N N N OC 2 H 5 H 2 O N O O Cu N N N C 2 H 5 O H H (12) Scheme 18.2 Schematic representation of the structures of copper(II) and iron(II) catalysts for the oxidation of alcohols with organoperoxides. R 1 R 2 OH Cu(II) or Fe(II) catalyst TBHP (2 equiv), MW, 80 °C, 240 min R 1 R 2 O (5 mmol) R 1 – H, aliphatic group; R 2 – aliphatic group Scheme 18.3 Catalytic oxidation of primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols [10a, 11, 12, 14a, 15]. It is worthwhile to mention that the performance of the systems strongly depends on the temperature, namely, a temperature decrease from 80 to 50 ◦ C lowers the yields down to circa 10% and 15% with catalyst 1a (Table 18.2, run 2 vs 5) and 8 (Table 18.1, run 6 vs 7), respectively [10a, 14b]. The range of temperatures that allows obtaining a high alcohol conversion is narrow as shown in Fig. 18.1. Further temperature increase above circa 100 ◦ C leads to TBHP (or H 2 O 2 ) decomposition with uncontrollable temperature/pressure increase inside the reactor and to a significant yield drop [14b]. The performance of the catalytic systems toward oxidation of primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols is lower and, in order to achieve reasonable yields of the corresponding ketones, the reaction time was increased up to 4 h (Table 18.3) [10a, 11, 12, 14a].
236 MICROWAVE-ASSISTED CATALYTIC OXIDATION OF ALCOHOLS TO CARBONYL COMPOUNDS TABLE 18.1 Oxidation of 1-Phenylethanol with TBHP Under MW Irradiation Catalyzed by Cu II or Fe II Complexes a Run Catalyst, μmol
Heating Method
Time, min
TON (TOF) Yield, %
References 1
MW 15
× 10 3 ) 58 [10a]
2 1a (10) MW 30 500 (1.00 × 10
3 ) 100 3 b
CH 30
4 4 b 1a (10) CH 300 405 (81) 81 5 c 1a (10) MW 30 50 (100) 10 6 1b (10) MW 30 485 (970) 97 7 d 1a (10) MW 30 100 (200) 20 8 1c (10) MW 30 150 (300) 30 [11] 9 2a (10) MW 30 450 (900) 90 10 2b (10) MW 30 475 (950) 95 11 2c (10) MW 30 405 (910) 81 12 2d (10) MW 30 360 (720) 72 13 2a (10) CH 30 360 (720) 72 14 2b (10) CH 30 390 (780) 78 15 2c (10) CH 30 275 (550) 55 16 3 (10) MW 15 105 (420) 21 [12] 17 4 (10) MW 15 455 (1.82 × 10
3 ) 91 18 4 (10) MW 30 460 (920) 92 19 3 (10) CH 30 65 (130) 13 20 4 (10) CH 30 255 (510) 51 21 5 (10) MW 30 195 (390) 39 [13] 22 5 (10) MW 60 415 (415) 83 23 6 (10) MW 30 25 (50) 5 [14a] 24 7 (10) MW 30 155 (310) 31 [14b] 25 8 (10) MW 30 165 (330) 33 26 9 (10) MW 30 85 (170) 17 27 10 (10) MW 30 75 (155) 15 [14c] 28 11 (10) MW 30 105 (210) 21 a Reaction conditions are those indicated in Scheme 18.1. TON, turnover number (moles of product/moles of catalyst); TOF = TON/h.
b Under conventional heating (CH), included for comparative purposes. c 50
C. d Hydrogen peroxide (10 mmol, 2 equiv) used instead of TBHP. As can be seen from the data in Table 18.3, the activities of the copper(II) catalysts are higher than that of the iron(II) 6-Hpca system. The highest turnover number (TON) values (up to 910, Table 18.3, run 21) were obtained with the catalyst precursor 12, but it is worth mentioning that it is tetranuclear (the activity per copper(II) atom is lower than that of the mononuclear complex 1a) and can dissociate in the reaction mixture to mononuclear and dinuclear species ([Cu(HL 4 )] + and
[Cu 2 (HL 4 ) 2 (MeOH)] + , respectively) that, in their turn, can catalyze the oxidation [15]. 18.2.2 Anaerobic Oxidation Catalyzed by Palladium(II) Complexes An efficient procedure of anaerobic MW-assisted oxidation of secondary alcohols (Scheme 18.4) in the presence of N- heterocyclic carbene palladium (NHC)-Pd catalysts (Scheme 18.5) with 2,4-dichlorotoluene or other aryl halides as oxidants was reported recently [16]. The reactions were performed in the presence of various bases, the best results being achieved with NaO
Bu (Table 18.4) [16]. The proposed mechanism of the reaction involves addition of the aryl halide and alkoxy anion to the metal center with the elimination of halide anion. The intermediate thus formed undergoes decomposition with the formation of the carbonyl product and regeneration of the initial form of the catalyst (Scheme 18.6) [17]. The formation of an alkoxy anion is promoted by the presence of a base in the reaction mixture. HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS 237 Figure 18.1 Effect of the temperature variation on the acetophenone yield, in the MW-assisted solvent-free mild peroxidative oxidation of 1-phenylethanol catalyzed by 8-pydz. Reaction conditions are those indicated in Table 18.1.
a Run Catalyst, μmol
Heating Method Time, min TON (TOF) Yield, %
References 1
MW 30
76 2 b 6-Hpca (10/50) CH 30 130 (260) 26 [14a] 3 7-py (10/200) MW 30 380 (760) 76 [14b] 4 7-pydz (10/200) MW 30 405 (810) 81 5 8-py (10/200) MW 30 410 (820) 82 6 8-pydz (10/200) MW 30 460 (920) 92 7 c 8-pydz (10/200) MW 30 75 (150) 15 8 9-Hpca (10/200) MW 30 385 (770) 77 9 9-Hpca (10/200) MW 5 370 (4.44 × 10
3 ) 74 10 10-Hpca (10/200) MW 30 375 (750) 75 [14c] 11 11-Hpca (10/200) MW 30 375 (750) 75 a Reaction conditions are those indicated in Scheme 18.1. TON, turnover number (moles of product/moles of catalyst); TOF = TON/h.
b Under conventional heating (CH), included for comparative purposes. c 50
C. R 1 R 2 OH R 1 R 2 O (NHC)-Pd, 2,4-dichlorotoluene (1 ml) NaO
i Bu (0.53 mmol), MW, 120 °C R 1 , R
2 (0.5 mmol)
Catalytic anaerobic oxidation of secondary alcohols [16]. As it can be seen (Table 18.4), the TON values are comparable to those obtained for metal-catalyzed peroxidative oxidation of secondary alcohols discussed above. However, in the case of the anaerobic oxidation, the reaction time is shorter and hence the TOF values (up to 11.2 × 10
3 , Table 18.4, run 1) [16] are superior to those for the peroxidative oxidation (Tables 18.1–18.3) [10a, 11–14].
The MW irradiation can also be applied for the hydrogen-transfer-type oxidation [18] of alcohols in the presence of the rhodium(I) or ruthenium(II) complexes with phosphine ligands [RhCl(CO)(PPh 3 ) 2 ] (15) and [RuCl 2 (PPh
3 ) 3 ] (16), 238 MICROWAVE-ASSISTED CATALYTIC OXIDATION OF ALCOHOLS TO CARBONYL COMPOUNDS TABLE 18.3 Oxidation of Secondary Aliphatic Alcohols with TBHP Under MW Irradiation Catalyzed by Cu II or Fe II Complexes a Run Substrate Catalyst, μmol Product
TON (TOF) Yield, %
References 1 b 1-Hexanol 1a (10) Hexanoic acid c 225 (56)
45 [10a]
2 d 2-Hexanol 2-Hexanone 125 (250) 25 3
2-Hexanone 450 (112) 90 4
3-Hexanone 410 (102) 82 5
Cyclohexanone 485 (121) 97 6
2-Octanone 425 (106) 85 7
2a (10) Hexanoic acid c 115 (29)
23 [11]
8 2-Hexanol 2-Hexanone 365 (91)
73 9 3-Hexanol 3-Hexanone 290 (72)
58 10 Cyclohexanol Cyclohexanone 340 (85)
68 11 1-Hexanol 4 (10) Hexanoic acid c 180 (45)
36 [12]
12 2-Hexanol 2-Hexanone 365 (91)
73 13 3-Hexanol 3-Hexanone 375 (94)
75 14 Cyclohexanol Cyclohexanone 320 (80)
64 15 1-Hexanol 6-Hpca (10/50) Hexanoic acid 80 (20) 16
16 2-Hexanol 2-Hexanone 140 (35)
28 17 3-Hexanol 3-Hexanone 160 (40)
32 18 Cyclohexanol Cyclohexanone 180 (45)
36 19 e 2-Hexanol 12 (5) 2-Hexanone 750 (188) 75 [15] 20 e 3-Hexanol 3-Hexanone 720 (180) 72 21
Cyclohexanol Cyclohexanone 910 (228) 91 22 e 2-Octanol 2-Octanone 730 (182) 73 a
= TON/h. b 20 mmol of TBHP (4 equiv). c Hexanal ( <1%) was also detected. d 30 min reaction time. e TON and TOF values estimated by us. N N
(12) (13) (14) Cl N N Pd Cl Cl N Cl N N Pd Cl Cl N Cl Scheme 18.5 Schematic representation of structures of (NHC)-Pd catalysts. respectively, as catalyst precursors [19]. The alcohol is a hydrogen donor, while methyl acrylate or methyl vinyl ketone, present in the reaction mixture, plays the role of a hydrogen acceptor (Scheme 18.7). The reaction can proceed through the formation of metal hydride species. Moreover, it was found that in case of ruthenium catalysts, the reaction rate can be significantly improved by addition of a base to the reaction mixture [20]. The base promotes the formation of ruthenium alkoxide that further undergoes a β-elimination to give, in sequence, a mono- and a dihydride complex (Scheme 18.8) [21], the latter being assumed as an active form of the catalyst [22]. The results on oxidation of the primary and secondary alcohols are combined in Table 18.5. HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 239 TABLE 18.4 Anaerobic Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols Under MW Irradiation Catalyzed by (NHC)-Pd II a Run Catalyst, mol% Time, min Product TON (TOF) b Yield, %
1 12 (0.025) 2 O 372 (11.2 × 10
3 ) 93 2 12 (0.025) 5 380 (4.56 × 10 3 ) 95 3
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