English Grammar: a resource Book for Students
Download 1.74 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
English Grammar- A Resource Book for Students
Solving the problems
There are quite a number of ways in which you might meet this need. One approach would be to signal the necessary extra meanings by the way you arrange words. To show what goes with what, for example, you could have a rule that you always put words for connected ideas together, perhaps with pauses between phrases: ‘bear big – small cave’. You could refine this – and avoid the need for pauses – by always putting the word for a quality immediately before or immediately after the word for the thing that has the quality: ‘bear big’; ‘cave small’. Another way of using word order would be to consistently put the expression for an agent or ‘doer’ earlier or later than other expressions, so that ‘brother kill bear’ and ‘bear kill brother’ would have distinct meanings. And again, you could use a different order of phrases for statements and questions: ‘Brother kill big bear’ versus ‘Kill brother big bear?’ A second strategy would be to alter words in some way to signal their functions. Latin did this: ursus and frater meant ‘bear’ and ‘brother’ as agents; as patients they became ursum and fratrem. Russian does much the same. This trick – inflection – could also be exploited to show what goes with what: related words could all be changed or extended identically. In Latin you could talk about a big bear without needing to put the two words next to each other: if ‘bear’ was ursus, ‘big’ was magnus; if it was ursum, ‘big’ was magnum, so the relationship was clear. Pronunciation, too, could indicate the functions of words. To show that a word referred to an agent, for example, you could pronounce the first sound differently; or you could say the word more slowly, or on a higher pitch: Kill bear brother. You could also use intonation to mark the status of a whole utterance, as we often do in English to indicate that we are asking questions. C O U N T A N D M A S S N O U N S 191 Yet another possibility would be to invent new non-referential words that do not label anything in the world, but that are used to show the function of other words. English ‘may’ is a word of this kind: it indicates that your sentence refers not to a definite fact, but to a possibility. Japanese puts small words – particles – after nouns to mean such things as ‘topic’, ‘agent’, ‘patient’, and ‘possessor’. These strategies are all variants on three basic options: ordering, inflection, and the use of function words. Once you have selected from these three options the devices you want to use for your language, you have devised a grammar. You now have a human language. So, to answer the question we started with: grammar is essentially a limited set of devices for expressing certain kinds of necessary meaning that cannot be conveyed by referential vocabulary alone. Download 1.74 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling