English Grammar: a resource Book for Students
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English Grammar- A Resource Book for Students
2.2 Example: in
The basic function of in is to refer to a situation where one object (the ‘trajector’) is contained within another (the ‘landmark’). However, even if we focus only on those uses of in that are concerned with relations between objects in physical space (as opposed to examples such as in trouble), we find that in is used in a whole range of situations where there is only an approximation to this ideal meaning. Consider the following examples (Herskovits 1986). 1. the cat in the house 2. the bird in the garden 3. the flowers in the vase 4. the bird in the tree 5. the chair in the corner 6. the water in the vase 7. the crack in the vase 8. the foot in the stirrup 9. ?the finger in the ring Example 1 is a prototypical use of in, referring to a situation in which the trajector (tr) is wholly contained within the landmark (lm). Example 2 is similar, except that a garden is a less prototypical example of a container than a house, since it has no clearly defined upper boundary. Nevertheless, there is some notional boundary, since a sparrow can be ‘in’ a garden if it is flying around at a relatively low height, but we would not say that a hawk hovering at 200 metres above the garden was ‘in’ it. Already in this example, then, we see another example of the notion of ‘construal’. Objectively speaking, a garden is not a well-defined three- dimensional container, but in our everyday use of a word such as in, it is construed as one. Examples 3, 4, and 5 show that there is a good deal of flexibility in the way we apply the notion of containment to the real world. In 3 the fact that the flowers are not inside the vase does not prevent us from using in to refer to this situation (figure 2.1). 208 E X T E N S I O N In 4, in order to conceptualise a tree as a container, we have to construe it as a three-dimensional object, the boundaries of which are defined by the ends of the branches. In 5 the question of whether a chair is ‘in’ a corner is a particularly ill-defined issue, given the indeterminate nature of ‘a corner’. The question can also be affected by the presence of other objects in the scene – we are much more likely to identify the chair in the diagram on the left of figure 2.2 as being in the corner than we are in the diagram on the right, even though it is in exactly the same position in both (Herskovits 1986: 47). Figure 2.2 The chair in the corner Examples 6 and 7 illustrate a rather different point – namely, the fact that the concept of ‘containment’ itself manifests a certain degree of flexibility. Example 6 constitutes a prototypical example of the concept, where a three-dimensional entity (the water) is entirely contained within the confines of a three-dimensional container, which surrounds it on all sides. But in 7 we interpret the notion of containment differently. Here, tr (the crack) is embedded in the surface of lm rather than in some hollow space inside it. In other words, there is some variation in the way lm is con- strued – as a volume in one case and an area in another. Similar examples of this latter use of in are found in such examples as the weeds in the lawn, the wrinkles in his skin. Figure 2.1 The flowers in the vase P R E P O S I T I O N S A N D S PA C E 209 Examples 8 and 9 are different again. The spatial configuration is similar in both cases (figures 2.3 and 2.4), yet there is a difference in how we identify the relationship between the two entities. Figure 2.3 The foot in the stirrup Figure 2.4 The ring on the finger In 8 we see the relationship as one of containment (even though only a small part of the foot is contained within the stirrup). In 9, it would be odd to concep- tualise the situation in terms of the finger being ‘in’ the ring. The reasons for this have to do with a pragmatic asymmetry between tr and lm in each case. Since the func- tion of a stirrup is to hold the foot in a particular position, it is naturally construed as lm, with the foot as tr. A ring does not have this function. The relationship here is the converse, with the finger functioning as a fixed entity (lm), with respect to which the ring is placed as tr. These examples show that, in order to explain the forms that we use to code these situations in language, we need to go beyond the level of surface topographical relationships. Background knowledge involving the relevant functional relationships is crucial to an understanding of the forms of coding, which reflect subtle aspects of everyday human experience. The same point can be made about the following pair (Herskovits 1986). 10. the bulb in the socket 11. *the jar in the lid The topographical relationships are similar in each case (figures 2.5 and 2.6), but only in 10 is the relationship construed in terms of containment, since only in this case is the uppermost entity naturally construed as a fixed reference point. Again, our background knowledge concerning the functional relationships involved is crucial to an understanding of the relevant linguistic patterns. Figure 2.5 The bulb in the socket Figure 2.6 The lid on the jar (*The jar in the lid) |
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