Green Capitals "in the Hearts and Minds of the People"
The European urban policy
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GreenCapitalsintheHeartsandMindsofthePeople
The European urban policy
In Europe, cities have been particularly active in competing and cooperating at the international level in the last thirty years following the above-discussed global trends 5 (Swyngedouw, 2004; Verdonk, 2014; Pierre, 2019; Mocca, 2019). In doing so, European cities have been increasingly dealing with the European Union (EU), which offers them a number of opportunities to engage in competitions, cooperate with each other, and obtain funding (Verdonk, 2014; Pierre, 2019; Purkarthofer, 2019). The European Commission, in particular, recognises the importance of urban authorities for implementing a growing range of policies, but it still lacks the capacity to adopt hard regulations on urban policies (Verdonk, 2014). That happens because EU member states have allowed the Commission to fund urban development projects and cooperate with city administrations, but they have always refrained from delegating precise urban competences to the Commission in the treaties (Verdonk, 2014). Since hard legislation has not been viable, the European Commission has been relying on “soft” policy tools, namely those policy tools that are voluntary, process-based, goal-oriented and non-hierarchical in their functioning (Torfing et al., 2012). Soft tools have emerged in time as an alternative to involve cities in the main European strategies concerning sustainability, energy, climate and other sectors where urban environments impact the most (Verdonk, 2014; Purkarthofer, 2019). States have been favouring their use as a way to benefit from the cooperation between cities and the EU while avoiding to devolve more power to the Commission (Pierre, 2019). The soft tool the Commission has used more frequently in that sense are thematic networks where city officials can meet, exchange ideas and coordinate their policies, which are known in academic literature as Transnational Municipal Networks (TMN) ( Kern & Bulkeley, 2009; Verdonk, 2014; Pierre, 2019). Although TMNs have been found to bring to better sustainability performances in a restricted number of committed members (Bansard et al., 2017; Heikkinen et al., 2020), their use has become mainstream in the Commission's urban policy as a way to cooperate directly with cities (Verdonk, 2014; Pierre, 2019). Despite empirical critiques, even a large share of the literature has also praised TMNs, regarding such networks as a useful arena both for city administrations and the European Commission to pursue projects and policies without the mediation of states (Bulkeley et al., 2003; Bulkeley, 2005; Kern & Bulkeley, 2009; Hakelberg, 2014; Pierre, 2019). Download 0.67 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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