Green Capitals "in the Hearts and Minds of the People"
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GreenCapitalsintheHeartsandMindsofthePeople
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- Chapter 2. Literature review and analysis framework Background: cities, globalization and sustainability
Structure of the thesis
The research thesis is structured as follows. In the second chapter, the literature on European urban policy for sustainability will be reviewed, and the method to analyse the EGCA elaborated upon. The third chapter features a review of the elite interviews method and the data collection of the interviews with municipal officials. In the fourth chapter, the results of the interviews will be presented and discussed, and the concluding chapter will recapitulate the analysis and highlight how these findings can serve further research on the EGCA and how it can inform practitioners in their approach to the award. 12 Chapter 2. Literature review and analysis framework Background: cities, globalization and sustainability The 21st century can mainly be described as urban. In 2007 for the first time in history, the share of the global population living in cities reached 50% (UN, 2018). As of 2019, cities account for 55% of the worldwide population and 70% of global economic output, two estimates that are projected to rise to 68-70% and 85% respectively by the middle of the century (UN, 2018; UNEP, 2019). Similar accounts are given for consumption, as urban environments reportedly use 80% of global energy supply and 75% of resources, being responsible for 70% of global greenhouse gases emissions (UN-HABITAT, 2011; UNEP, 2015). Thus, the role of cities in achieving sustainable development is pivotal, and it has been recognised as such already in the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987; Bulkeley & Betsill, 2005). Cities are recognised as sources of human capital, social innovations and new forms of governance (Berg, van den et al., 2014). Their authorities are deemed capable of engaging in ambitious projects, actively involving their community and fostering new innovative solutions to global issues like climate change and sustainable development (Bulkeley & Betsill, 2005). From the 80s on, city administrations have been encouraged to engage in such efforts on their own by New Public Management, a neoliberal agenda for public administrations which suggests, among other things, to privatise several public services and to manage the municipal administration in a company-like way (Elgert, 2018). As a consequence, cities rely less on the State for their financing, and more on the funds of private markets and international organizations, which they obtain by promoting their concrete policy projects in an entrepreneurial way (Busch & Anderberg, 2015). The city results and reliability are shown to investors and fund-owners by relying on statistics and other quantitative data, which are deemed the most objective way to report the outcomes of the policies and decide on how they can be improved (Elgert, 2018). From the 90s on, the search for resources takes place more and more on the international arena, where financial capitals have been moving thanks to globalization (Swyngedouw, 2004). Thus, city administrations are forced in two diverging directions. On one side they are encouraged to promote themselves through place branding, that is “the type of strategies and practices carried out primarily by local governments for the purpose of governance and increasing place competition [...] to attract external social and nancial capital to a certain place” (Andersson, 2016; p.1199). Place branding has evolved from business marketing (Green et al., 2016) in order to highlight the unique features of a city and reshape its international image as a livable and innovative place (Busch & Anderberg, 2015; Andersson, 13 2016). On the other side, municipal administrations around the world tend to cooperate more in order to exchange best policy practices and make up for the expertise they lack locally (Pierre, 2019). These authorities are conscious of the fact that no city on its own can ever achieve the massive results and host all the required expertise that global issues such as climate change require (Pierre, 2019). This brings to create partnerships with other cities, international organizations and non-state actors where exchanges can take place (Bulkeley et al., 2005; Pierre, 2019). Similar partnerships are also formed at the local and national level in order to mobilitate the resources a city already has for some precise policies (Bulkeley et al., 2018; Pierre, 2019). As part of multiple partnerships simultaneously, cities use the resources that different actors can bring in order to elaborate new policy measures, instead of relying only on formal decision-making (Pierre, 2014). Now, since all these processes of competition and cooperation are reshaping the way decisions are made in cities, the literature in the last decades has been focusing less on formal institutions within cities, whose power does not correspond anymore to the only influential force in policy-making, and more on the concept of urban governance (Swyngedouw, 2005; Bulkeley et al., 2018; Pierre, 2014, 2017, 2019). Urban governance has been broadly defined by Pierre (2014) as “the process through which a city is governed” (p. 867). The large extension of the concept is intended to include all the actors that have some influence on decision-making, that is non-state actors as well as local, national and supranational political actors. While it is clear that globalisation has opened up a wide range of possibilities for urban governance approaches, the literature is divided concerning how the relationships among cities are affected by that. Some regard them as based on neoliberal entrepreneurial competition, while others stress the importance of cooperation (Busch & Anderberg, 2015). In either case, the global arena offers many chances to cities to go beyond their formal competences and act as catalysts for sustainability, making their role pivotal in sustainable development (Bulkeley et al., 2018). However, the impact that urban governance can have on sustainable development shows one strong limitation. The rise of urban governance is characterised by wide inequalities among cities both along the global North-South divide (UN; 2018) and more localised disparities (Swyngedouw, 2004). Most urban authorities rely on a small degree of formal authority granted by national governments, and engaging in urban governance to overcome its limits is very resource-intensive (Bulkeley et al., 2018). Not surprisingly, then, the more economic, organisational and human resources a city has, the more it is going to network at the international and local level to tackle complex issues such as those related to 14 sustainability (Swyngedouw, 2004; Elgert, 2018; Heikkinen et al., 2020). Thus, while cities are key actors in addressing sustainability issues, just a few of them have the means to have an impact of their own. This still relegates cities as a whole in a secondary role compared to national governments when tackling global issues (Bansard et al., 2016). Download 0.67 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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