Green Capitals "in the Hearts and Minds of the People"
The study of EU urban governance
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GreenCapitalsintheHeartsandMindsofthePeople
The study of EU urban governance
In Europe, urbanisation covers an even greater share of the population compared to the global average, as 80% of its inhabitants live in urban areas (Gulsrud et al., 2014). European cities are also characterised by some specific issues, especially those related to deindustrialisation (Andersson, 2016; Mocca, 2019). After the 70s, European industry has started to be relocated in the rest of the world, and most of the cities that relied on it for their prosperity had to change their social structure to foster the skills required by the tertiary sector (Andersson, 2016; Mocca, 2019). As a consequence, European cities have started already in the 80s to engage in new forms of urban governance in order to requalify their economy and rebrand their former industrial image (Andersson, 2016). While these developments are common to other parts of the Global North, like North America, European cities have been found to be genuinely different from their American counterparts (Pierre, 2014). Most notably, they are embedded in a political system where, apart from non-state and State actors, they deal with a regional actor that has established as a key partner to obtain funds and cooperate for policy projects, i.e. the European Union (Verdonk, 2014; Pierre, 2014). Officially the European Union does not have specific urban competences delegated by its treaties (Verdonk, 2014). Its member states have long kept their cities out of European funding throughout the 70s and the 80s. In those years, though, the European Commission advocated for including cities in policymaking after noticing their importance for the implementation of many development policies (Verdonk, 2014). Thus, member states have opened EU funding to cities in the 80s and 90s, while avoiding to delegate urban competences to the Commission in the treaties (Verdonk, 2014). Despite that, the European Commission has managed to involve cities in various policies, including sustainable development and climate action, through “soft” rather than “hard” policy tools. “Soft” policy tools is a broad term for those political measures that are voluntary in participation and implementation for the political actors they are addressed to, as opposed to traditional state-enforced legislation (Terpan, 2015; Torfing et al., 2012). Some examples include non-binding urban agendas, transnational municipal networks (TMNs) and multi-stakeholders consultative partnerships (Bulkeley et al., 2003; Kern & Bulkeley, 2009; 15 Purkarthofer, 2019). Within European politics, such tools have represented the majority of policy instruments used by the Commission from the 2000s on, as EU members have been showing less acceptance for binding legislation (Dehousse, 2016). Soft tools have become a way for the Commission to coordinate even those policies where it lacks legislative competences (Tholoniat, 2010; Dehousse, 2016). In time, these instruments have proved to be able to move beyond non-bindingness, and enlarge the powers of the Commission in the fields where they were applied (Dehousse, 2016). The literature claims they are an essential first step in putting some themes that were not under EU competences into the European agenda, opening to hard legislation on the matter later on (Usui, 2007; Tholoniat, 2010; Dehousse, 2016). In some policy sectors, member states have eventually turned the soft policies proposed by the Commission into new competences, as in the case of EU budget policy (Dehousse, 2016). In the field of urban policy, some first steps in that direction have been made from the 90s on by informal meetings of European ministers, which have created a framework for European urban policy by issuing thematic non-binding declarations addressed to cities (Verdonk, 2014). Concerning sustainability, some notable examples include the Leipzig Charter in 2007 and the European Urban Agenda in 2016 (Zuidema & De Roo, 2009; Purkarthofer, 2019), which set up some standards for sustainable development in European urban areas. While the potential of soft tools for strengthening European integration has been assessed, further studies on their impact on urban policies have found that they are also increasingly interlinked with the new role of cities in sustainable development (Atkinson & Rossignolo, 2008; Bulkeley et al., 2018; Pierre, 2019). In Europe, such a role is developing at the same time as European integration (Verdonk, 2014), and some authors even suggest that the two processes are now interlinked, leading to an urban form of Europeanization (Hamedinger & Wolffhardt, 2010; Bulkeley et al., 2018). In European Studies, the link between the EU and cities has been explained through the concept of Multi-Level Governance (MLG), i.e. a “system of continuous negotiation among nested governments at several territorial tiers-supranational, national, regional and local- [...]distinctive of [...] the European Union” (Hooghe & Marks, 2003; p.234). This concept describes a state of contemporary European politics in which, owing to the transferring of powers from national states to local authorities, on one side, and to the EU on the other, decisions are now taken through continuous negotiation among territorial actors in a horizontal process rather than the traditional top-down way (Hooghe & Marks, 2003; 16 Bulkeley, 2005; Piattoni, 2009; Pierre, 2019). Power is managed through thematic case-by-case governance instruments that most authors put under the umbrella term “networks” (Piattoni, 2009). Among them, Transnational Municipal Networks (TMN) have been one of the central analysis objects. TMNs are networks of city administrations whose membership is voluntary, where decision-making is horizontal and each administration is responsible for the implementation of the decisions in its own city (Kern & Bulkeley, 2009). They differ considerably in size and the themes they deal with (Bansard et al., 2017). Eurocities, for instance, has hundreds of members and deals with urban development at large, while Climate Alliance deals explicitly with sustainable development and has thousands of members (Kern & Bulkeley, 2009; Hakelberg, 2014; Mocca, 2017). From the 80s on, most soft policy tools included in European urban policy ended up creating thematic TMNs, most of which proved to be temporary (Swyngedouw, 2005; Verdonk, 2014; Pierre, 2019). Some parts of the literature consider TMNs one of the most promising arenas where cities can interact directly among each other to influence both the EU and national governments and play a key role in sustainable development (Bulkeley et al., 2003; Kern & Bulkeley, 2009; Pierre, 2019). On the other side, the praxis of relying on TMNs as a governance approach has also faced some critiques. Unlike traditional state politics, governance creates an arena for decision-making where there is no transparency as to how the members are selected, who they are accountable to and how decisions are made (Swyngedouw, 2005; Usui, 2007). Although governance in general is usually regarded as enhancing democratic decision-making through direct participation, the main fear these critiques express is that the guarantees that traditional democratic politics offers are not assured in governance instruments such as networks, which might further marginalise those actors that already have a weaker voice in decision-making (Swyngedouw, 2005). TMNs, in particular, are criticised for being still a Western phenomenon involving a vast majority of small- to big-size cities from Europe and North America while including just some few major ones in developing countries (Bansard et al., 2017; Heikkinen et al., 2020). Even inside TMNs there are huge differences among members. Multiple studies highlight how most networks are characterised by a few pro-active members at their core and a significant number of members who are either following or inactive (Kern & Bulkeley, 2009; Hakelberg, 2014; Bansard et al., 2017; Heikkinen et al., 2020). The literature concludes then that TMNs are “networks of pioneers for pioneers” (Kern & Bulkeley, 2009; p.311). In other words, their governance structure represents and serves already existing actors and power dynamics 17 rather than reshaping them, which widens the gap between best-performing cities and others (Hakelberg, 2014; Bansard et al., 2017). Some critiques have also regarded the instruments adopted by urban governance approaches. In the case of European TMNs, the most prominent ones include identifying and sharing best policy practices, supporting members in applying to EU funding or giving some kind of recognition to best performances by establishing ranking systems or awards (Kern & Bulkeley, 2009). All of these instruments have been touched by critics of governance. In particular, the reliance on best practices has been criticised as a form of “new localism”, namely the belief that the solutions that worked in one urban context are exportable to other ones (Bulkeley & Betsill, 2005). According to critics, this approach does not take into account the specific conditions of each city, leading to unsuccessful policies (Bulkeley & Betsill, 2005). As to applying to EU funds, it has been found to be a minor activity that does not change the policy of cities (Kern & Bulkeley, 2009). Lastly, ranking and awarding are criticised for promoting specific and, once more, “exportable” models of how a sustainable city should look like, which obliges municipal administrations to conform in order to get access to the funds, investments and visibility connected to high rank (Lähdesmäki, 2014; Rosol et al., 2017; Elgert, 2018). Download 0.67 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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