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Part II Russification of Tribal Affairs
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- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- The present policy line of the Ministry
- PAKTIA PROVINCE as a case study
- Russification of the Clergy System
- Russification of the Afghan Economy
- Afghanistan’s natural resources
Part II
Russification of Tribal Affairs On June 11, 1981, the Council of Min isters of the Kabul Government, undei the Chairmanship of Babrak Kamal, took a further step in the russification of Af ghanistan and decided to reorganize the Ministry of Tribes and Nationalities. The new terminology “tribes” indicates that more attention is being paid to the specific characteristics of Afghan tribal society, while the term “nationalities” shows the intention to develop the whole Kabul administration according to the Soviet model for “divide and rule” among the different Afghan groups. That specific ministry had been upgraded to an extent that whereas prior to the Communist Re gime, one deputy was foreseen, now eight deputies are appointed to this Ministry which operates as a state within a state and receives half of the Kabul admin istration’s budget. Retrospectively, it should be mentioned that during the reign of king Zahir Shah, in 1934 an independent “Department of Tribal Affairs had been created. It was to deal with the tribal belt stretching along the border from Chitral in the Northeast to Seistan and Baluchistan in the Southwest. This Department of Tribal Affairs was later upgraded to a Min istry and opened up regional offices in Kunar, Ningrah, Paktia, Zabul, and Kan dahar. The Pasthun tribes it dealt with living on both sides of the border were: Mohmand, Safi, Utmankhel, Terkani Cham in the east, Shinwari, Afridi, Zadran, Zazi, Mangel, Wazir, Masud, Popalzai, Akzai, Achakzai, Sadozai, Alokozai in the south, and Nuvzai, Tarin, Aliz, Ishaqzai tribes in the west. The main functions of the Ministry were as follows: — to watch the socio-political develop ments among the tribes, — to obtain information about intra and inter-tribal relations and conflicts, — to gain and maintain spheres of influence in the tribal area. Influential leaders of the tribal belt were always received by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs as official government guests at provincial towns or in the capi tal and lived regularly in government guesthouses. These tribal leaders usually received very high salaries and valuable gifts. The budget of this ministry was exempted from usual fiscal and govern ment control. It should also be noted here that Pakistani political agencies, since the British imperial era in the Indian Subcontinent had been following the same pattern. The reason for many tribal lead ers receiving such high salaries and pay ments was their habit of shuttle diplomacy between both sides. 31 Generally, the main objective of the Ministry’s policy was defensive — de signed not so much to use the tribes against Pakistan as to prevent them from being used against the interests of the Afghan government. The present policy line of the Ministry Since the flagrant invasion of Afghani stan by the Red Army, the majority of the people of this country, according to their code of honour, the so-called “Pashtunwali” (a binding but unwritten law) appears to have forgotten all old ethnic, linguistic and religious conflicts. According to the “Pashtunwali” Code of Honour, if ever any of the “Three Z’s” are violated by invaders, then all Afghans must unite immediately against the in vaders. Generally speaking, although among the different tribes and peoples of Afghani stan, sometimes feuds and conflicts bring about big clashes, and they are generally missing a clear national consciousness, and inspite of the ideological conflicts in herent in the many political groupings inside and outside Afghanistan, once they face a common enemy, a strong feeling of belonging to one country, Afghanistan, arouses in them and a sense of fighting for a common cause emerges among the people, as is experienced again now, after the April 1978 Revolution. In an effort to break this emotional solidarity wherein lies the main strength of the present resistance of Afghanistan, the old Ministry of Tribal Affairs was reorganised as the Ministry of Tribes and Nationalities. With the word “tribes” the Russian- backed Kabul regime and the concerned authorities define the Pashto-speaking area, or the Pashtuns of the above-men tioned strategical tribal belt from Chitral (the border to China) via the Khyber Pass, as the springboard to the Indian sub-con tinent and to Baluchistan as the key to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. They are denied the right of nationality, and this Pashtun community is treated as a mosaic of fragmented tribal elements by Moscow and Kabul. The reason for this strategy is because Pashtun national ism is a great danger to Russian imperial ism in that particular part of the world. According to the principle of “divide and rule”, fully backed by the Kabul re gime, the Pashtun tribes should first be isolated and then played off against each other. Besides, this treatment reflects the re sentment of the Parcham fraction of the PDPA installed by the Red Army and which is based primarily on Persian speaking urban elements traditionally op posed to the Pashtu-speaking rural ele ments which were historically dominant in Afghan. The term “nationalities” includes the other Afghan minority groups considered in the Soviet style as separate entities, such as the Hazaras, mostly from the central part of Afghanistan, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Turkomans, Nuristani, Baluchi, who are also all heavily engaged in the country’s resistance forces. Official pro paganda promises them internal autonomy and the promotion of their local lan guages, cultures, etc. The real objective is the fragmentation and, in the end, the dis integration of Afghanistan as an indepen dent national entity. PAKTIA PROVINCE as a case study Generally speaking, Afghanistan can be described as an essentially rural society, and it is mainly the rural population who resist the Soviet occupation and its instal led Kabul regime. More or less, half of the Afghan society has a tribal structure and most tribal com 32 munities speak Pashtu. Paktia, a southern, Pashtu-speaking province of the country is the part of Afghanistan where there is the strongest tribal structure with the strongest resistance against the invaders. Efficient and strong resistance and struggle against the PDPA takeover start ed in the Paktia province in early 1979 when after the invasion by the Red Army’s overwhelming military strength, was not able to break the will of the people to resist. Economically speaking, the Province of Paktia is poor. The inhabitants of the mountainous region comprising the larg est part of the province have no land to cultivate. They live on the export of fire wood and construction-wood to Kabul or Pakistan; they breed cattle and more often goats. On the plains around Khost and Gardez a limited amount of irrigated land existed, but mostly dry farming is practiced. The struggle for the liberation of Af ghanistan is being fought along two dif ferent lines: 1) on the basis of tribal structure as internal resistance, and 2) according to political organizations only as external resistance, which are stationed outside of the country, i.e. most ly in Peshawar or in Quetta/Baluchistan. Among the Afghan external resistance organizations based in Peshawar or in Baluchistan, some — especially the so- called moderates or traditionalists (Islamic organizations) — are adapting themselves to tribal conditions and recruit their fol lowers accordingly. The fundamentalists (or “Ikhwanis”) — especially the “Hesbe-Islamis” — are im posing their own party structure (as the Kabul Communists tried to do several times). However, in order to take root in Paktia, they need to break, or at least weaken, the tribal structure of those com munities. To some extent, they have suc ceeded in weakening this structure, but they have not gained extension of their own influence. This means also that by analyzing the tribal structure of such com munities these two aspects of resistance should be considered. The tribal instincts and the way of life of the population is constantly work ing against the fundamentalists. The only influential and efficient commander of Maulawi Younis Khalis’s Hezb-Islami party is the popular Maulawi Jalaluddin, and his influence is largely due to his belonging to the strong Zadran tribe of Paktia. Sociologically speaking, if we are talk ing about the Pashtun tribal system of Paktia, it can be described as a regulated anarchy. It is anarchic because no single autho rity is recognized by all the tribes, and their relations with the central govern ment of Kabul have always remained loose and distant. When in 1929 King Nadir Shah took over Kabul from Bacha Saqao (the water carrier’s son) with the help of Paktia tribes, this population was given some privileges. One was that they would not be directly answerable to the central administration. Another, that they were exempted from military service. It is “regulated” because within a tribe all social and economic aspects of life are strictly regulated by unwritten customs and norms of behaviour like the “Pashtun- wali”, a code of honour, mentioned. The well-known large tribes of the Paktia Province by order of numeric im portance are: Zadran, Mangal, Zazi, Tani, Gorbez, Manduzai, Ismakhel, Sabari, La- kan, to name only the main tribes of this province. Each tribe is sub-divided into clans, sub-clans, households, etc. The highest decision-making body with in the tribe is the “jirga” or tribal council, generally composed of elders who are the leaders of their respective clans 33 or sub-clans. The decisions of the Jirga are carried out by a sort of tribal police called “arbaki”. According to a traditionally established order, each clan and sub-clan of the tribe has to appoint to the “arbaki” force five to ten out of 100 or ten to twenty out of each 1,000 of their fighting-age men. When, according to a jirga resolution the arbakis punish someone by, for instance, burning down his house or even execut ing him, no-one has the right to oppose them or to take personal revenge. Sanc tions for offenses and crimes are: fines paid in the form of cattle or cash, burning of houses, and executions. In order to make this point more clear, we will give here the example of the Tani tribe, one of the large tribes of Paktia. As the complete structure will be too long for this chapter and too complicated for the reader, we will trace only one of the numerous subdivisions. — Tribe (Qaum) “Tani”: Clans (Qa- bila: Three. 1. M a r ik h e l, 2. Sikni, 3. Arizi. Example: M a r i-k h e l: Sub-clans (khel): 1. Khabi-khel, 2. Tazi-khel. Example: Tazi-khel: Ancestry (Tabar) 1. Ibel-khel, 2. Tor-khel, 3. Ati-khel. Ati-khel: Lineage (Pesha) 1. Masti-khel, 2. Sparki, 3. Hessaraki. Hessaraki: Household (kahol) 1. Charey, 2. Pakhey, 3. Andas-khel. Andaskhel: Extended family (Kor): 1. Iajmar-khel, 2. Shazad-khel. More or less, the same number of clans and sub-clans, etc. with different names exist in the other branches. The last two are the extended or the clanic families; the small family cell of western society does not exist. One of the clanic families has about 100 to 110 men of fighting age; the other has about 200. The whole Tani tribe is estimated to have some 1,500 adults able to fight. The idea of fighting ability is not new; it is the traditional norm of a tribe’s strength and importance. Russification of the Clergy System The majority of the people of Afghani stan is, as in most other similar Muslim countries, connected with the Sunnite con fession and one or the other of its several “Sufi” orders (“tariqa”), the two strong est being the “Naqehbandi” and the “Qa- diri” clergy systems. Accordingly, the Soviet planners, from the beginning, had in mind the screening and selection of the desirable clergymen from different Islamic institutions, known secretly as “red Mullahs” for PDPA membership. These "Mullahs”, mostly of a poor ca libre from the “Shariat” (Islamic law) Faculty of Kabul University and other Islamic schools (Madrassa, Darulolum) B y e lo ru ssia n p r is o n e r - o f- w a r w ith A fg h a n m u ja h id e en . 34 often came from poor families in the pro vinces with a low standard of living. Prior to the Sawr Revolution of 1978, secret Soviet projects went very smoothly in Afghanistan. Key posts and different jobs were found for these people in the ministries, universities, “madrassas”, “Au- qafs” (a department within the Ministry of Justice responsible for overseeing Islamic matters such as ‘pilgrimage’), as well . as in mosques. These infiltrators along with Soviet advisers today belong to the cadres of the Kabul administra tion and its ruling party. Shortly after “Khalq” came to power, things started to go wrong for the Soviet policy makers and its puppet Kabul re gime. The Soviets and its created PDPA cadres thought that they could easily run Afghanistan through such ‘‘red Mullahs” (so-called Islamic Marxists), who had been carefully selected for political and propaganda reasons as well as other proxy government departments staffed by their own people. Apparently, the Soviets even believed that the devout Muslims of Afghanistan would be satisfied with such a proxy regime staffed by some “red Mullahs” recruited by Soviet advisers, as they had practised those tactics in the other Soviet Asian Republics. It probably had not even occurred to the Soviet experts that these “red Mul lahs” and other party cadres would be rejected by their own people and even deserted by their own families. Although these Soviet-recruited party cadres obviously fed the Soviet authorities with misleading reports on the people of Afghanistan and their culture and tradi tions, the Soviets continue to staff the Kabul-installed regime, who carry out the instructions of their advisers, while put ting their Afghan countrymen to death, in order to find some breathing space in their own country. Nevertheless, as it happens, both within and outside the country the very fathers, brothers, sisters and even mothers of these people have risen against them and the Soviet Red Army forces. Russification of the Afghan Economy The Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform Although the Soviets and their instal led Kabul regime continue to suffer set backs in all sectors of their fruitless at tempt to reshuffle and re-organize a Kabul Communist civilian and military infra structure, key posts and relevant depart ments of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform have recently been once again reshuffled. The Minister of Agriculture and Land reform, Fazl Rahim Mohmand, was re placed by his deputy Minister and he himself was appointed Director of the Central Statistical Organization, which was detached from the State Committee of Planning, (the former Ministry of Planning), and now directly linked to the Council of'Ministers. It should be mentioned here that al ready within a few weeks of the new Communist regime several reform decrees were promulgated, e.g. Decree No. 8 a policy of land reform. Since such reforms were not adapted to the conditions in the country they too were bound to fail. In addition, it should be stressed that this specific Land Reform Law was not a new concept but taken over and modified from the former Daoud regime, where it had also been drafted by the Soviet advisers in different committees. The decree on Land Reform (Decree No. 8), which brought misfortune to the whole country, was announced and im posed when Taraki and Amin were still 35 in power. They were both very proud of having distributed three million acres of prime agricultural land among almost 300,000 farmer families. The majority of farmers, who received land ownership titles have either fled the country, been killed, or imprisoned, or have hidden in places where the government does not have any control, or they are fighting against the Russians and its installed Kabul regime. Hence, the agricultural output of the country is badly affected and reduced by more than half of its normal level, and serious food shortage is threatening the country and the prices of consumer goods are soaring higher. The Land reform and its catastrophic consequences has disrupted almost all agrarian projects and reduced property tax as an important source of public re venue. It has also affected the financial posi tions of concerned banks of the country because those who were indebted to these banks never appeared to repay their debts. Last but not least the creation of farm ers’ societies, which in fact was the re naming of Farmers’ Cooperatives estab lished in 1968, was announced after the April 1978 Communist takeover, and thereafter the government, in less than one year, was claiming that about 1,200 farm er cooperatives had been registered. A shortage of qualified cooperative personnel, as in most other government departments and agencies, was not con sidered significant by the authorities con cerned. No attention was paid to the lack of facilities required for the operation of cooperatives and the unawareness of the illiterate farmers about the voluntary con cepts of cooperative organization. Hence, almost all the registered coop erative societies collapsed in a short period of time. In the middle of 1982, the Babrak Karmal government announced that Mujahideen Commander Abdul Wahid captured and killed by Russian soldiers in the spring of 1984. slightly more than one hundred active cooperative societies throughout the coun try were registered, but such cooperatives exist on paper only. Afghanistan’s natural resources Russian influence in the field of Afghan natural resources can be traced back to the end of the 19th Century and the start of the 20th century. After the end of the third Anglo-Afghan war and after the declaration of Afghani stan’s independence (1919), the first Rus sian mission arrived in Kabul and, there after, eight years later, the first Soviet publication on “Mineral Riches of Af ghanistan” was published by Soviet geolo gists, a sector previously dominated by British experts. Because the Afghans had long been the victims of this Anglo-Russian competition, and in spite of many diplomatic rebuffs from Washington, they chose American Inland Oil to develop their resources in the 1930s. Although important resources were quickly confirmed, the company abruptly terminated its exclusive 25-year concessions because of transport problems and the imminence of World War II. The ill will generated by this was offset by 36 secret American Aid during wartime and by subsequent substantial development ef forts. In the late 1950s, the Afghan Govern ment asked France to support the petrol eum and natural gas development projects. But the Soviets successfully forced out this NATO member country. Especially, at the time when Daoud was Prime Minister (1953-1963) under King Zahir Shah, relations between Afghanistan and the USSR improved and the Russians were actively penetrating the whole Af ghan economy, especially almost all natural resource development projects, e.g. the petroleum and natural gas development projects as well as the different mines pro jects, and therefore Afghan natural re sources came under the Soviet advisers’ influence. By the late 1950s early 1960s, extensive Soviet geological explorations took place and, last but not least, the Afghan natural gas project of Sheberghan (northern Af ghanistan) was developed by the Soviets and since then it has been exporting its output to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union was from that time on until now the sole customer for Afghan natural gas exports. Prior to 1973, Moscow was paying the Afghans prices for gas significantly under world price levels (approx. §6 per 1,000 cubic meters) and less than what they were paying to other suppliers (e.g. Iran). Shortly after Daoud came to power in 1973, prices were increased by the Russians (i.e.: abt. $16 per 1,000 cubic meters), but that was still under world price levels. After the Russian invasion of Afghani stan, prices were increased several times by the Soviets, following severe criticism from Afghan freedom fighters and dif ferent Third World nations, principally China and now are believed to be around $5.25 per 1,000 cubic feet which represents annual total export earnings of about $307m for 1982 (272.8m for 1981; $216m for 1980; $76m for 1979). During the four years prior to April 1978, they fluc tuated between $39m and $46.5m a year. The dollar value of Afghan gas exports to the USSR cannot be considered too significant because the Afghans are not paid in hard currency. Rather, the nominal gas export earnings are offset against im ports of goods and services from the Soviet Union under a barter trade system. In short, Afghan’s natural gas production at Sheberghan, which had long been piped to the Soviet Union as the sole customer country at well below world prices, was increased about 65 percent after the Rus sian invasion of Afghanistan. By the late 1970s, extensive geological Soviet research and exploration resulted in different reports and the identification of over 1,400 mineral showings or occurrences as well as 70-odd commercially feasible de posits. The Russians then committed over $652m, in aid for further resource exploration and development, including a half million ton oil refinery, a 1.5 million ton per year copper smelter and many other projects. On the other hand, Daoud’s government asked the French Total Oil Company by the mid-1970s to further petroleum development in Katawaz area (southern Afghanistan). The Russians forced out this French oil company and took over the monopoly of the Afghan natural resources. The Flajigak iron deposit said to be the third largest in the world, as well as the Ainak copper ores, which could capture two percent of the world market, were explored and evaluated by the Soviets. Other important mineral deposits avail able for Soviet exploration are Chrome, lead, zinc, molybdenum, tin, rare earths, gold, barite, celestite, flourite sulphur, as bestos, magnesite, muscovite, turmalin, lapis-lazuli, concet, and other precious stones. Download Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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