Polysemy and metaphor in perception verbs: a cross-linguistic study
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7.1.2. Cross-linguistic Polysemy
In the previous section, it has been argued that polysemous senses are not the result of the meaning of a single lexical item alone, but the result of the interaction of such a lexical item with the other elements in the sentence. This is of special importance when we examine cross-linguistic polysemy. Different languages express the same concept in different ways, with different elements. For example, if we look at motion verbs in English, like to go up, to go down and so on, we notice that in order to express the concept of upwards motion, it is necessary to use the verb go in conjunction to the preposition up. Other languages, however, use a different strategy to convey this meaning. In the context of some people waiting for the lift, English speakers could say the following sentences. 138 Miller and Johnson-Laird (1976) also notice this contextual dependence of locative particles. (For an different argument see Landau and Jackendoff 1993). 139 This proposal called ‘Distributed Spatial Semantics’ is supported by data coming from language acquisition studies such as Sinha et al. (1994), Thorseng (1997). See also Sinha and Thorseng (1995) for a coding system for spatial relational reference. B. Iraide Ibarretxe Antuñano Chapter 2: The Semantic Field of Sense Perception 186 (9) -Going up? -Yes, I’m going to the third floor Spanish speakers and Basque speakers in the same situation would say (10) and (11) instead. (10) -¿Subes? go.up.2 SG : PRES ‘Going up?’ -Sí, voy al tercer piso yes go.1 SG : PRES to.the third floor ‘Yes, I’m going to the third floor’ (11) -Gora? up. ALL ‘Going up?’ -Bai, hirugarren pisura noa yes third floor. ALL go.1 SG . PRES ‘Yes, I’m going to the third floor’ In (10), the Spanish speaker expresses the same concept of upward movement by only using the verb subir ‘to go up’. In (11), the Basque speaker uses the adverb gora 140 ‘upward’ in the same case. The differences in the use of motion verbs cross-linguistically have been the object of a great deal of research. Stylistic studies such as Vinay and Darbelnet (1975 [1995]) already pointed out these divergences between English and French. More recently and in the Cognitive Linguistics framework, Talmy’s ‘event-frames’ theory 140 Gora is formed by the adjective goi ‘high’ and the allative case marker –ra. Sentence (9) can be alternatively expressed by a single verb like in Spanish with the verb igo ‘to go up’ and by the adverb gora accompanied by the verb joan ‘to go’. B. Iraide Ibarretxe Antuñano Chapter 2: The Semantic Field of Sense Perception 187 (1985, 1991, 1996) proposes a more unified way of accounting for these typological differences. Talmy assumes that it is possible to isolate elements separately within the domain of meaning and within the domain of surface expression (verb, adposition…) and satellites (“certain immediate constituents of a verb root other than inflections, auxiliaries, or nominal arguments” (1985: 102)). The association between semantic elements and surface elements is not a one-to-one relationship. A combination of semantic elements can be expressed by a single surface element or vice versa. Or semantic elements of different types can be expressed by the same type of surface element, as well as the same type by several different ones (1985: 57). This varies across languages. Talmy classifies languages into two typological groups: (i) ‘verb-framed’ languages, those that “characteristically mapped the core schema 141 into the verb” and (ii) ‘satellite-framed’ languages, those that “map the core schema onto the satellite” (Talmy 1991: 486). The examples discussed above belong to what Talmy calls the ‘motion event’. A motion event is “a situation containing movement or the maintenance of a stationary location” (1985: 60). A motion event consists of several semantic components: the ‘Figure’ (F) – the moving or conceptually movable object whose path or site is at issue –, the ‘Ground’ (G) – a reference-frame, or a reference – point stationary within a reference-frame, with respect to which the figure’s path or site is characterised –, the ‘Path’ (P) – the course followed or site occupied by the F object with respect to the G object –, and the ‘Motion’ (M) – the presence per se in the event of motion or location (Talmy 1985: 61). According to Talmy’s approach 142 , English is a satellite-framed language, because a satellite to the verb, the preposition up, conveys the core information of the path of 141 The ‘core schema’ is “the schematic core of a framing event”. A ‘frame event’ is in turn, the event that “has the character of delineating a certain type of schematic structure in any particular set of organised conceptual domains” (Talmy 1991: 482). 142 Although Basque is not included among the languages analysed by Talmy, it seems that it might be included among the verb-framed languages. However, more research into this aspect is needed in order to support this statement. B. Iraide Ibarretxe Antuñano Chapter 2: The Semantic Field of Sense Perception 188 movement, whereas Spanish is a verb-framed language because it is the verb itself, subir ‘to ascend’, that conveys that information 143 . The same structures in (9), (10), and (11) can convey metaphorical meanings. Sentences (12), (13) and (14) are examples of Lakoff and Johnson’s orientational 144 metaphor MORE IS UP . According to these authors, the physical basis of this metaphor is our experience of the fact that when we add more of a substance or of physical objects to a container, the level goes up. (12) The number of books printed each year keeps going up (Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 15)). (13) El número de libros publicados cada año sigue subiendo the number of books published each year keeps going.up ‘The number of books printed each year keeps going up’ (14) Urtero argitaratako liburuen kopuruak goraka jarraitzen du year.each published. ADN book. GEN number. ERG up keep. HAB aux ‘The number of books published each year keeps going up’ As seen in the examples, this metaphorical mapping is not only found in English, but also in Spanish (13) and Basque (14). What is different between these languages is the overt syntactical representation of such metaphorical meaning. As is the case in the physical examples above, in English it is necessary to use the verb go followed by the 143 See Aske (1989) and Slobin (1996) for a more detailed discussion of the ‘motion event’ in English and Spanish. 144 An ‘orientational’ metaphor “organises a whole system of concepts with respect to one another” (Lakoff and Johnson 1980:14). These metaphors are usually related with spatial orientation: up- down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. B. Iraide Ibarretxe Antuñano Chapter 2: The Semantic Field of Sense Perception 189 preposition up, in Spanish the verb subir covers this meaning and in Basque, the adverb goraka 145 . Download 1.39 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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