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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Collectivist Perspectives
Learning is enculturation into pre- existing societal structures, supported by mediator means or ade- quate representations. Prototype: Activity Theory. Individualistic Perspectives Learning is individual change, according to steps of cognitive deve- lopment and to context. Prototype: Cognitive Psychology. Interactionist Perspectives Teacher and students interactively constitute the culture of the classroom, conventions both for subject matter and social regulations emerge, commu- nication lives from negotiation and taken-as-shared meanings. Prototypes: Ethnomethodology, Symbolic Interactionism, Discourse Analysis (Pragmalinguistics). Pestalozzi (1946) also pointed to the social function of labor. The most fa- mous case of a collectivist-oriented practice is Makarenko's work near Poltava, Ukrainia, where he collected and educated dead-end youth (besprisorniks) right after the revolution (1920-1928), reported in his Pedagogical Poem (1940). In these two cases, quite different fundamental convictions have led to very similar – and very successful – practices, and both with severely damaged youth. In mathematics education, things seem to be more complicated than in general education. According to my recent work, I will limit these remarks to elementary education in mathematics and, within this area, to the issues of the understanding of mathematics itself and of language. The contrast tried here contradicts the consequences from both the two extreme traditions with the consequences drawn from the intermediate interactionist position. On this level of discussion, it is clear that only quite general inferences are possible. 5.1 Understanding Mathematics Fundamentally different practices arise from whether mathematics is taken as an objective truth, as a societal treasure, as something existing and docu- mented objectively, or as a practice of shared mathematizing, guided by rules and conventions emerging from this practice. The first conviction will lead teachers to "introduce" children, to use "embodiments" and "representations," which are structurally as "near to the structure mathematically meant" and as little misleading or distracting as possible. Children's errors will find corrections toward the expected correct answer and so forth. Objectively existing structures and properties also give space for "discovery" activities, given that the expected findings are in reach of the present cognitive aptitudes (e.g., "zone of proximal development"). The latter conviction will lead teachers to organize their activities as part of a practice of mathematizing, that is, as a challenging and supportive "subculture" specific to this teacher and these children in this classroom, which functions toward developing the students' "constructive abilities," their related self-concept, and self-organization, rather than as a manage- ment through product control and permanent external assessments. The di- versity of subjective constructions of meaning and the necessity to arrive at viable adaptations – "taken-as-shared meanings" and "taken-as-shared regu- lations" – requires optimal chances for discussions based on intensive expe- riences and aiming at the negotiation of meanings. There is no discovery in the classical sense, there is subjective construction of meaning only, since "what is observed are not things, properties, or relations of a world that ex- ists as such, but rather the results of distinctions made by the observer him- self" (von Glasersfeld, 1991, pp. 60-61). PERSPECTIVES ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION 140 5.2 Language Related to language, again, we arrive at very different practices depending on whether languaging is taken as the use of an objectively existing body of language, of the storehouse of societal knowledge and prepared meanings, or whether languaging is understood as a social practice of orienting. Once we separate "language" and "activity," the primacy is given to ac- tivity (see Brushlinsky, above), and learning will have to begin with activi- ties in which language is used as a pregiven "tool." The "collective subject" becomes "enculturated" into an already existing culture. The learning sub- ject's creative inventions appear to be deviant moves, which have to un- dergo correction toward the standardized use of the "mediating tools." So long as language is considered to be denotative it will be necessary to look at it as a means for the transmission of information, as if something were transmit- ted from organism to organism . . . . when it is recognised that language is conno- tative and not denotative, and that its function is to orient the orientee without re- gard for the cognitive domain of the orienter, it becomes apparent that there is no transmission of information through language. (Maturana & Varela, 1980, p. 32) In the latter case, again, we arrive at the necessity for an ongoing negotia- tion of meaning in the classroom, aiming not only at a viable adapting to taken-as-shared meanings of the subject matter pointed at but also at a re- lated clarifying of the taken-as-shared meanings of the signs and words in use, and, particularly, at furthering the reflection of the underlying subjec- tive constructive processes. It is remarkable how far Vygotsky has pointed out the need to analyze higher mental functions as processes. Thinking of everyday classroom practices, the product orientation is still found to dominate the majority of classrooms everywhere: Teachers' inventions follow their subjective image of the product to be taught rather than ideas for developing useful construc- tive and descriptive processes with students. It is only in a much later state of rooted habits, conventions, and norms that a person's mathematizing can develop the properties, so much beloved by mathematicians, of curtailment and elegance, of forcing power, of precision and sharpness in thinking and presenting – "since there is no other way of thinking it" (as Jaspers, 1947, p. 467 enthusiastically said). The product illusion, perhaps, is the most devas- tating force in education, because it usually blinds the more knowledgeable and (in terms of subject matter) better prepared teachers. 6. OUTLOOK: THE NEXT CATCHWORD – CONNECTIONISM We should say: it is thinking, just as we say: it is thundering. To speak of cogito is too much already, if we translate it into I am thinking. (Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, 1971, in: Sudelbücher, K 76, p. 412. By the way, Vygotsky, 1992, p. 147, already has quoted the very same aphorism. He used it to introduce his ex- cellent analysis of tying a knot in one's handkerchief and the related functioning for remembering.) HEINRICH BAUERSFELD 141 PERSPECTIVES ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION More than 200 years ago, Lichtenberg already pointed at a crucial fact that presently characterizes consequences from connectionist models. Indeed, across the last years, computer models for human brain functioning have come into favor under labels like "connectionism," "dynamic networks," and "parallel distributed processing," or "neural net" models. I am not inter- ested in the technical realizations. But the interpretation of such models in our field of mathematics education opens quite fascinating perspectives. "The 'new connectionism' is causing a great stir in cognitive science and ar- tificial intelligence" says Bereiter (1991, p. 10), himself a well-known cognitivist before. Clearly, these models are simpler, more powerful, and al- low more convincing interpretations of educational experience and research outcomes than cognitive psychology has produced so far (see Varela, 1990, 1992; also, Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992; Ramsey, Stich, & Rumelhart, 1991; Rueckl & Kosslyn, 1992). Common to all of these models is the interpretation of the human brain as a huge network consisting of nodes and connections, with many specialized sets of nodes and connections as part of it. The brief reinterpretation of a few key concepts from this perspective may enable the reader to assess the persuasive power her or himself: Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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