Grammatical peculiarities of toponyms in the english and uzbek languages

CHAPTER II. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RURAL ELEMENTS IN ENGLISH AND UZBEK TOPONYMY
2.1. Origin and Functional Aspects of English Village Names
Geographical names are the most valuable monuments of human spiritual culture. Toponyms preserve the memory of historical events, they reflect the cultural and spiritual values of a certain period , the heroism of peoples and individuals. "Toponyms are an expression of people's attitude, culture, life, customs, their daily environment, psychological state and communication," writes G. Ya. Rilyuk [5, p. 7, 8]. AV Superanskaya, VI Dal, LV Uspensky, EM Murzaev, Yu. Many works of famous Russian and foreign linguists, historians, geographers, such as A. Karpenko, X L. Khanmagomedov, VA Zhuchkevich, BA Nikonov, E. Ekvol. , R. Coates, A. Smith, G. Steward, W. Watson, O. Padel, et al. However, there are still many problems that complicate the interpretation of toponyms, as well as controversial issues related to the identification of the sources of toponyms. In English toponyms, all the wealth of folk geographical terms is recorded , and at the same time, it is possible to observe the specific features of different formation models and structure of toponymic units.
Just like the English language itself, it has a rich history. Natural, socio-cultural, ethnic-political, historical-geographical, linguistic factors played their role in the genesis of toponyms of this country. Many English toponyms have been changed and changed, corrupted, as a result of turbulent historical events over many centuries . In some cases, the words used in toponyms are taken from languages that are dead and have no known definitions; or toponyms can be combinations between two or more languages from different periods [6.55]. The toponymy of Great Britain is as varied as the toponymy of any country. In English names, traces of the language of the peoples who lived in Great Britain, mainly Celts, Britons, Picts, Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, have been preserved.
As we can see, along with the original Celtic and Old English toponyms, there are also borrowed toponyms from Norman, Latin and Old Norse. In addition, the level of personal names in the redistribution of geographical names is very high - often these are the names of now unknown landowners. Nottingham - snotengham - the village of the people of Snot ; Todmorden ( Todmorden ) is the boundary of the Toda Valley. But Edinburgh (Edinburgh) kept the royal family's name of Eid in its name. Many place names in the north and east are of Norwegian origin, often including related names. In general, Old English and Norse place names have two structures: a proper noun + an affix denoting a type of settlement, farm, or place; farm type + affix denoting farm or settlement. Most toponyms ending in wich, ton, ham, by, thorpe , stoke/stock belong to these types. In Cornwall (Kernow) most place names, especially in the western areas, are of Cornish origin, for example the resort town of Penzance, whose name means "holy cape".
The Old English influence is stronger in the toponyms of eastern Cornwall. There are 6 known areas of Celtic culture and speakers of Celtic languages. These are: Brittany (Brage), Cornwall, Ireland (Éire), Isle of Man (Mannin), Scotland (Alba) and Wales (Cymru). In each of these areas, one of the Celtic languages is spoken or used to be spoken [21.57]. In addition, areas in the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, such as Galicia, are sometimes considered Celtic due to the region's unique culture, although Celtic languages are not spoken there in modern times. The greatest number of Celtic place names is observed in the north and west of the British Isles (especially in Wales and Cornwall). Common Celtic elements in Cornwall are the prefixes tre - , pen - and lan - . . In Wales - the prefix llan - in Cumbria, Celtic place names mainly reflect the landscape features of the area (eg Blencathra and the Helvellin Mountains).
The Celts also gave names to many rivers, including the Ehen and the Cocker . In northern Scotland, place name elements are derived from Gaelic, such as loch (symbol for lake) and glen . Here are examples of Celtic elements and their meanings: aber - the mouth of a river, the confluence of rivers (Aberystwyth, Aberdyfi, Aberdeen, Aberuthven); Coombe - low valley ( Woolacombe, Doccombe ); glen - a narrow valley ( Rutherglen, Glenarm, Corby Glen); lan, lhan, llan - ch erkov; a village with a church ( Lanteglos, Lhanbryde, Lanercost, Llanbedr Pont Steffan, Llanybydder, Llanwenog, Llanwnen ); ket, chet - forest ( Penket, Kulkhet ) Thus, we can draw the following conclusions: modern English toponyms were formed from other linguistic sources in addition to the original; in some cases, an English toponym consists of elements that do not belong to a certain language and historical period; Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and Normans not only contributed to the development of English culture and language, but also influenced the toponymy of the British Isles; the large number of linguistic sources makes it difficult to study the toponyms of Great Britain; As a result of changes in language and culture, many forms and meanings of geographical names have been distorted or completely lost