Grammatical peculiarities of toponyms in the english and uzbek languages

The toponymic system in the modern linguistic paradigm
ASShcherbak distinguishes the following principles that allow us to talk about systematic toponymy in the material of the city-lexical dictionary:
1) transformation (it is possible to express any segment of the world picture that has been actualized as a toponym in the toponymic space);
2) animation (a lexical unit can take the status of a toponym without losing the general generative basis of the name of the common name or the specific name);
3) projection (a general everyday vocabulary related to different areas of human activity, different thematic, lexical-semantic groups and types of related names, mainly anthroponyms and toponyms);
4) actualization (as a basis for the formation of toponymic units, any lexical-semantic word groups, or any names that act as a driving unit for new names that can be used);
5) delay (onomastics reflects such a linguistic picture of the world, which is more archaic than the real linguistic picture of the world, because toponymy preserves linguistic archaisms);
6) correlation (in the toponymic dictionary there is a correlation of the denomination with the area of the production base that created it);
7) impartiality ;
8) integrity ;
9) compiled ;
10) hierarchy ;
11) openness ;
12) coding (presence of repeated toponymic designations)
Toponyms make up a significant part of the onomastic lexical language fund. According to researchers, the toponymic layer makes up 2-3% of the total vocabulary content [6,56 ] . As humanity studies the geographical objects of the surface of our planet and expands its geographical horizons, nameless physical-geographical objects are becoming less and less. A geographical name is a part of the vocabulary system of a particular national language, which is formed according to the basic laws of the language and serves in speech according to its basic rules and traditions [7,55 ] . Any geographic object has both a geographical term and a toponymization that calls the type of object, so the so-called topographical object "is named twice , so the semantics of the toponym is additionally enriched" [8,175]. Toponyms are distinguished by the secondary nature of the language elements involved in their creation, as well as the long duration of most of them [9,19 ] . Lost information can be recovered during etymological study; For example, the names of English settlements beginning with the castle element "city" represent a small part of the oikonymi that came to us from the British: Caerleon , Caernarfon, Caerphilly, Caerwent, Caerlaverok, Lancashire. Cambridge → Cambridge, Cambridge, Canterbury → Canterbury, Carlisle → Carlisle, Caerphilly → Chichester , Gloucester, Gloucester, Exeter → Exeter , Lancashire → Lancaster, Leicester → Leicester, Leicester → Lichfield, Salisbury → Salisbury, Winchester → Salisbury, Winchester.
Any specific name is an onomastic sign that reflects the set of knowledge about a specific name (linguistic and encyclopedic knowledge) and serves to study onomastic knowledge in the human mind [10,10 ] .
Toponyms are divided into anthropotoponyms, toponyms, ethnotoponyms, zootoponyms , fitoponyms, ergotoponyms, etc. names derived from anthroponyms (Columbus, Baltimore, Washington, Fort Johnson, Woodrow Wilson Bridge, Cape Kennedy) ; Toponyms (toponymic metonymy) - geographic names derived from geographical terms or existing toponyms (Mississippi River → Mississippi State, Missouri River → Missouri State) ; Ethnotoponyms are toponyms derived from the names of tribes, peoples and other ethnic units. (Kansas, Massachusetts, Dakota, Utah, Essex, Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Hitchin, Oundle, Trickingham, Normanton, Irby) ; Zootoponyms - names given to geographical objects by species (Bearpaw Creek, Beaver, Buffalo, Squirrel, Butterfly, Eagle, Fox, Lizard) ; Phytotoponyms - toponyms reflecting flora (Big Oak Mountain, Birch Creek, Willowwood Park, Alder Lake) ; Ergotonyms are geographical names that reflect a person's social status and professional activity (Artist Point, Butcherknife Canyon, Driver, Hunter Creek, Lawyers Hill, Patron Creek, Weaver) , etc.
According to etymology, toponyms are divided into aboriginal, assimilated and hybrid. Adopted names are the phonetic and phonetic of the language that has changed over time adapted to grammatical features and reinterpreted. Thus, the toponyms of the United States combine Anglo-Saxon, Indian, Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Finnish, Greek, East Slavic, Italian, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Polish, Japanese, Czech, Arabic, and Armenian names.
According to the principle of distinguishing the number of characters (objects marked with a geographical name), one can distinguish single pattern, multi-degenerate and empty toponyms. Unilateral or ideal toponyms perform the function of individualization at the highest level, that is, these are toponyms related to only one geographical object (Dinosaur City , Viper City in Colorado , Kentucky City ) . Many geographical toponyms have a large number of referents (Kentucky is the name of settlements in the states of Mississippi, Illinois, Arkansas, settlements named after Arizona are found on the maps of Texas, Nevada, Louisiana, the city of Petersburg is found 35 times, Moscow - 24 times) . Empty toponyms do not contain real geographic features, such as the names of fictitious geographic features that never existed ( Queer Street on the highway to Needham ). Based on the same principle, DIermolovich divides toponyms into singular and plural [11,107]. Single toponyms are those associated with one toponymic object in the linguistic collective mind ( London , New York, Washington, Paris ), although they may refer to many other, as a rule, smaller geographical objects. possible (there are 7 toponyms in the USA). New York , 19 - London , 23 - settlements named after Paris , 35 - Washington ). Several toponyms are not associated with any geographical object in the linguistic mind. This includes the remaining mass of place names. An example of this is the toponymy of Big Lake , whose symbols refer to lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, and settlements in the United States 183 times according to the GNIS Geographic Names Information System, or 506 according to the toponym Little Creek. .
It is estimated that there are currently about 3 million names in the United States and about 1 million names are missing. The database of this study contains about 3,000 toponyms of the United States, which are a small part of the entire toponymic system of the United States, giving a clear picture of their etymology, structure and internal form. American toponyms are not homogeneous in terms of their composition (age, source language, morphology, semantics). Compared to the toponymy of Great Britain, the toponymy of the United States is very young: it began to be formed less than four hundred years ago, and many features characteristic of American toponyms began to form in the last quarter of the 18th century. .
Aboriginal toponyms (toponyms of Anglo-Saxon origin) make up the main part of the toponymy of the USA (1621 units, 51.6 %). They are often fully motivated and their meaning is easily revealed: Yellowstone "yellow rock", Long Beach "long beach", White River "white river", Old Town "old town", Hot Springs "hot springs". , Mountain Home " mountain house, Garden City "Garden City", Little Rock "Little Rock", Salt Lake City "Salt Lake City", Red River "Red River", Blue River "Blue River", Long Island in New York "Long Island" Among toponyms of English origin, there are many symbolic toponyms with a positive value: Freedom "freedom", "Hope" "hope", "Harmony" "harmony".
US toponymy contains a large number of "toponym migrants", i.e. twins of already existing geographical names from other countries, mainly Great Britain. The list of toponyms from Great Britain presented in Appendix 1 contains 249 units, which is 2%, and about 20% of geographical names are located in the northeast of the country (New England area). Residents moving to a new place of residence transfer their native toponyms to the new area out of a sense of patriotism and a desire to preserve the memory of the Motherland. Toponyms can be joined with the defining particles: Great- ( Great Barrington ), West- ( West Tisbury ), East- ( East Greenwich ) and the most common adjective New- ( New Cumberland, New England, New Chester, New London , New Boston, New Hyde Park, New Brighton, New Gloucester, New Hampshire, New Cumberland, New Manchester, New Windsor, New Lyme, New Kent, New Kent, New Kensington , New Oxford, New Plymouth, New Windsor ).
The degree of assimilation of foreign names and their influence on the creation of new (American) place names varies in different geographical regions of the country. This difference is determined by many linguistic and extralinguistic factors [12,61 ] . Among borrowed toponyms, taking into account the source of the language, we can distinguish the following groups of toponyms: Nomadic, Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Finnish, Greek, Eastern Slavic, Italian, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Polish, Japanese, Czech , Arabic and Armenian.
Toponyms of Indian origin (pre-European local toponyms, so-called "aboriginal toponyms") survive almost entirely in the United States. Many of the names of indigenous peoples are found in places where they lived and settled a long time ago , where Europeans had close contact with the indigenous people and adopted their geographical names. VANikonov, on the one hand, points to a certain exoticism of such toponyms, and on the other hand, emphasizes their neutrality in relation to their nominations, which is the reason why Indian names have survived to this day. VANikonov writes: "Prefering the name of a French, English or German state means giving the advantage of one of the rival groups to the detriment of others who do not compromise with it. In such a fierce competition.