Korean Studies, 27. 1
Instances of Imperial Appropriation
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Kory 335 as an independent realm
Instances of Imperial Appropriation
In traditional East Asia, only the Son of Heaven was entitled to wear the imperial yellow. In this context, it is surprising to find an entry in the Kory0sa that mentions that imperial yellow was worn at the beginning of the dynasty. In the twelfth year of the reign of Munjong (1019–1046–1083), the Ministry of Rites, responding to an inquiry by the monarch if it would be possible for him to wear colors other than yellow and red, compiled the relevant passages of Chi- nese works and reported its answer back to the monarch. The Ministry of Rites concluded that a monarch could not wear any colors except the three official colors of yellow, dark red, and deep red, because of their connectedness with the state rituals. 15 The contents of the ministry’s answer directly equated the monarch (who is referred to as emperor—hwangje—in this passage) with the 52 k o r e a n s t u d i e s , v o l . 2 7 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 52 Son of Heaven, the officiant of all essential state ceremonies. Note that this directive comes from the Ministry of Rites, an assembly of preeminent Confu- cian experts, hardly a favorite gathering place for confirmed nativists. 16 According to the principal source on Kory0, the Kory0sa, Kory0 rulers were kings. Nevertheless, Kory0 rulers from T’aejo (877–918–943) to W0njong (1219–1259–1274) have the suffix chong or cho attached to their posthumous name, which is an imperial usage. 17 Kory0’s crown princes bore the imperial title of t’aeja or even hwangt’aeja (also common was the hybrid title of wang- t’aeja). 18 As if to underscore the imperial titles he received, the Kory0 crown prince resided in the Eastern Palace (Tonggung), a place normally reserved for the imperial heir apparent. 19 The Kory0 ruler not only enacted laws but also promulgated imperial edicts, such as cho and che. 20 He was addressed with the imperial p’yeha. 21 The capital was at times referred to as the Imperial Capital (Hwangs0ng or Hwanggy0ng). 22 The structural duality of a royal and an impe- rial system caused heated debates among the compilers of the Kory0sa, but in the end the party that wanted to adhere to the classic Confucian adage that ad- vocated “recording [the facts] and not fabricating [them]” won the day. 23 As a result, some instances referring to Kory0 as a realm (ch’0nha) can still be found in the Kory0sa, 24 but it can be surmised that many original references to Kory0’s ambiguous system have been erased. Cross-checking of the extant sources con- firms this. 25 Some of the epithets and structure mentioned above were also pres- ent during the Chos0n dynasty. Most notable among these were the use of the suffixes chong and cho in the posthumous names of rulers, the continued per- formance of the w0n’gu ritual and imperial Daoist rituals well into the first half of the dynasty, and the use of the Eastern Palace for the crown prince. 26 To an- ticipate the obvious refutation that the evidential value of these examples suf- fers on account of their continued use in the royal Chos0n dynasty, let me make two assertions. Firstly, the very fact that these “traditions” survived into the Cho- s0n dynasty—and for some of these until the end of Chos0n—can just as eas- ily be attributed to the total weight of the cultural and historical power accu- mulated during centuries of use. The enduring presence of the marital ritual, which requires the bridegroom to go the bride’s house, is a case in point: it was contrary to neo-Confucian orthodoxy but survived on the strength of its tradi- tion. 27 Secondly, the fact that these intrinsically contradictory elements survived into the Chos0n dynasty should give cause to reconsider the precise nature of Chos0n identity in relation to the issues mentioned above, instead of leading to a rejection of alternative interpretations of the circumstances during the Kory0 period. Even more diverse and colorful instances of imperial appropriations can be found on steles bearing epitaphs and eulogies. The imperial designations for edict, crown prince, palace, and so forth can all be found without difficulty. And so can a number of dragon-related epithets for the emperor. 28 Some steles ex- r e m c o e . b r e u k e r : Kory0 as an Independent Realm 53 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 53 plicitly mention the realm Kory0, the imperial touring of the country, the exis- tence of three thousand vassal countries (an accepted substitution for the whole world), and T’aejo’s receiving the Mandate of Heaven. 29 Two aspects should be mentioned here. One is that a large number of these examples come from the steles dedicated to distinguished monks or to temples. Despite the considerable political activities of monks and the important politico-economic role of large temples and monasteries, this would still suggest that the use of imperial no- menclature was not purely political but a widespread phenomenon. This is also supported by its common use on steles for the wives of important bureaucrats, scholars, and noblemen. 30 Furthermore, these practices started before and con- tinued through and after the reign of Kwangjong. Kwangjong instituted a full- blown imperial system, but this did not survive him. 31 The continuous use of imperial nomenclature on steles suggests that it should be viewed independently from Kwangjong’s imperial movement. 32 The emperor’s clothes hold valuable clues as to how Kory0 rulers per- ceived themselves, not only in terms of fashion, but, more importantly, in terms of status, position, culture, and ontology. Previous research has explored the duality of the Kory0 system in some detail, but its conclusions have not left the confines of the idea of naeje oewang, emperor at home and king abroad. 33 Kory0’s identity has, in other words, been analyzed through a predominantly political framework. The attention that the political dimensions have received has been at the expense of other, equally important, dimensions. Major incon- sistencies in the Kory0 administrative structure, in the use of titles, and in its dominant systems of belief cannot be explained away by appealing to such an essentially opportunistic attitude. Even if supported by the maintenance of a sep- arate tributary system, 34 this would only express limited imperial ambitions— limited to the peninsula and for domestic consumption only, that is. The con- cept of naeje oewang implies that despite the structural duality of the system, its respective expressions were to be kept strictly separated for the concept to retain its integrity. This was definitely not the case. In fact, public manifesta- tions of the ambiguity of the Kory0 system are still extant, such as, for instance, the inscription accompanying a sculpture of Bhaisajyaguru Boddhisattva that utters a wish for the long life of the present Kory0 emperor (k1msang hwangje), while using the Song emperor’s reign period. 35 The above-mentioned evidence is the proverbial tip of the iceberg. There are more structural and institutional characteristics of Kory0 society that bor- row the charisma of the dragon throne. These structures were counterbalanced by the simultaneous presence of royal structures. The result was a dual admin- istrative structure that included, among other things, the investiture of members of the royal family as kings, 36 the organization of five armies instead of the cus- tomary three that were allowed to a king, 37 the adoption of the Tang imperial administrative structure, 38 the use of its own reign names, 39 and the bestowal 54 k o r e a n s t u d i e s , v o l . 2 7 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 54 of fiefs worthy of kings. 40 Confucian scholars and bureaucrats were not opposed to this kind of inappropriate behavior. In fact, this institutional dualism was sup- ported by Confucian ideology and by leading Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. Download 347.48 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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