Korean Studies, 27. 1

The Korean Son of Heaven
The clothes of the Kory0 ruler were intimately tied to his ritual functions.
His clothes not only denoted his status as a ruler, but also his position as the hu-
man link between Heaven and the people. This ontological attribute was, for
instance, actualized when he celebrated the Round Altar heaven-worship ritual
(w0n’gu), a ritual that was the exclusive domain of the Son of Heaven.
41
The
significance of the appropriation of this essential right to worship Heaven and
to personify Heaven to the people becomes even more compelling when linked
to the orthodox Confucian
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perception of the Kory0 ruler as the ruler of an in-
dependent domain, a usually overlooked dimension of political Confucianism
in Kory0. A large portion of the Kory0sa is devoted to astronomical observa-
tions, the recording of natural disasters, and the Five Phases.
43
The interest in
these occurrences was partly constituted by scientific interest. Partly also, these
occurrences were recorded out of ideological motives. The governing concept
behind this minute recording of all kinds of abnormal natural phenomena was
the classical Confucian idea of an organic universe and was sanctioned by the
words of Confucius.
44
According to this idea, all organic and inorganic phe-
nomena and all humans are continuously interconnected in an all-embracing net
(kang). This state of continuous interconnection causes changes in one phe-
nomenon to be experienced in other phenomena; every act has its repercussion
(kongmy0ng), although the political provenance and consistent political uses of
this concept particularly focused on the repercussions that acts of the ruler trig-
gered.
45
In theory, all acts had their repercussions, but the unique status of the
ruler, who in the words of Dong Zhong-shu (179–104 b.c.e.) was “the root of
the country and the moving power of all phenomena,” had extraordinary con-
sequences.
46
Dong, the Han synthesizer of cosmological metaphysics, integrated
the cosmologies of the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Book of the Master
of Huainan (Huainanzi) and created an ethical cosmology that connected the
heavenly order with human society. The mandate by which Heaven entrusted
the ruler—the Son of Heaven—with the power and legitimation to rule was both
sociopolitical and ontological. The ruler occupied a unique ontological posi-
tion, and he was the holder of a unique sociopolitical station as the sovereign
of the All-Under-Heaven. Ethics, expressed by the concept of virtue, consti-
tuted the basic principle that moved the universe.
47
Quite literally, human soci-
ety thrived by virtue of the Son of Heaven, and conversely, it decayed by lack
of it. According to Dong, the universe was hierarchically arranged; Heaven at
the top, then the ruler, then the great nobles, and in this manner all the way down
to the people. The proper state of each and everyone was not affected by ma-
r e m c o e . b r e u k e r :
Kory0 as an Independent Realm 
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nipulation from below, but only by performing the appropriate behavior from
above. The hierarchical construction of the universe, the strictly top-down re-
lations between proper behavior and proper conduct and the strong normative
character of this concept explain the importance that was attached to the heaven-
worshipping rituals by the ruler and the potential benefits and harms that were
associated with it. This concept of an organic universe in which Heaven and hu-
mankind were so closely linked together further established the importance of
portents and omens by connecting these with the workings of the universe.
48
The significance attached to portents was no mere superstition, but a well-ar-
gued and internally coherent system of thought with political relevance. Con-
cretely speaking, the system worked as follows: if the ruler chose to neglect his
heaven-ordained duties, either by committing evil acts or by not preventing or
countering evil influences, the disturbed tissue of the universe would cause nat-
ural calamities and strange occurrences. On the other hand, virtuous rule was
emphasized and endorsed by the appearance of auspicious omens.
In Kory0, where classical Confucian thought furnished the ideological
moorings of the dynasty’s bureaucracy, this concept of rule, including its meta-
physical lore, was accepted and acted upon.
49
In essence, it meant that the Kory0
ruler was ontologically responsible for the well-being of the country. Typically,
the concrete elaboration of this concept, Confucian in origin, was mixed with
Daoist, Buddhist, and geomantic elements, which meant that the ruler had to
perform Confucian heaven-worship rituals, have Buddhist sutras read aloud, per-
form Daoist rituals, and pay heed to the prophecies of p’ungsu chiri, to name
the most important preventive and restorative measures a Kory0 ruler had ac-
cess to.
50
The mediating role of the Kory0 ruler by performing heaven-worship
and by disseminating virtue instead of vice through Confucian rituals and ide-
ology is mirrored in the officiating role of the Kory0 ruler in Daoist court ritu-
als. The evidence these court rituals, (ch’o and chae) offer is not only important
for its confirmation of the indispensable existence of the ruler, but also because
of the wording of the accompanying ritual texts.
51
In one text the ruler refers to
himself as y0’ir’in, which literally means “I, the only one.”
52
This first-person
singular term is a pronoun reserved for the Son of Heaven. It not only indicates
his paramount status as the most important human being but also denotes the
fact that he is—ideologically and literally—the only one who can mediate be-
tween Heaven and his people. 
Notwithstanding the strong Daoist influences,
53
the Confucian contents
of the concept of the ruler as guardian of universal order remained strong, which
meant that the conduct and the legitimacy of the ruler had a direct bearing on
the proper workings of the universe. By performing the appropriate rites—and
by wearing the proper clothes—the ruler could regulate his relationship with
the universe and secure universal order. Misconduct and misrule were punished
by Heaven through catastrophes and disasters, usually preceded by ominous por-
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tents. On the other hand, virtuous rule and harmony were rewarded with aus-
picious portents.
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The Confucian emphasis lay on the ritual of heaven-worship
and on the cultivation of virtue by the monarch, but in practice, every measure
that could reasonably be expected to be successful was tried.
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The performance
of the heaven-worshipping chech’0n ritual was intimately connected to the
politico-religious mediating role of the Kory0 ruler. By definition, this ritual,
considered crucial for the very existence of the realm, was restricted to the Son
of Heaven. Kings officiated similar ceremonies in honor of local mountains and
rivers, but certainly not in honor of Heaven. Nonetheless, the Kory0 ruler per-
formed this ritual at the w0n’gudan.
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The fact that the Kory0 ruler performed
this ritual signifies that he was considered to have received the Mandate of
Heaven.
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It also meant, obviously, that he had the qualifications to mediate be-
tween the Supreme Being and his people.
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The status of the Kory0 ruler as a
superhuman being positioned between Heaven and earth is confirmed by his per-
formance of the earth-worshipping pangt’aek ritual and in the use of a jade