Korean Studies, 27. 1
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Kory 335 as an independent realm
Pluralist Literati
A whole set of paradoxes and contrasts is involved in these matters. There is the contrast between Kory0 and China, between China and the so-called bar- barians, between Kory0 as a realm and Kory0 as a vassal state, between depen- dence and independence, and between sinocentric policy and nativist strategy. There is also the paradoxical and inconsistent simultaneous use of imperial and royal traditions and the even more confounding paradox of the rise of antitheti- cal ideologies of the early and middle Kory0, or rather of their respective inter- 60 k o r e a n s t u d i e s , v o l . 2 7 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 60 pretations. Historiography on the Kory0 period has often described its policies, beliefs, and thoughts in an idiom of contrasts, that is, in a disguised monist ter- minology that emphasizes their fundamentally contradictory natures. 83 But, as can be surmised from the few examples mentioned above, it is not possible to di- chotomize Kory0 society and thought to such an extent. Between the polar op- posites of sinocentrism and nativism there is a huge gray area in which most of the Kory0 diplomacy took place. 84 The same goes for the ideological beliefs of most mid-Kory0 literati. Despite the impression one receives from the starkly po- larized reign of, for example, Injong, Kory0 literati were not divided into either sinocentric Confucianists, unprincipled and opportunist usurpers of royal pre- rogatives, or die-hard nativists. 85 Let us take a closer look at this gray area. The above examples of Pak Illyang and Kim Pu1i are instructive in this respect. Pak is shown in his writings to have been a versatile literatus, well- versed in classical Confucian texts and rituals, 86 apparently as much at ease when writing Daoist ritual texts, and obviously a devout Buddhist. 87 His versatility can be simply written off as pragmatism or opportunism, but his writings be- speak a seriousness that cannot be easily reconciled with simple expediency. Pak’s diplomatic writings tell a similar story; while he was a devout admirer of Sinitic culture, 88 he nonetheless placed Kory0 at the center of his world, both practically and ideologically, as may be surmised from the assertive dispatches he wrote to Kory0’s tributary suzerains. A complete analysis of the pluralist ori- entation of early and mid-Kory0 literati falls outside the scope of this article, 89 but the all-pervasive nature of this capacity to accept fundamental contradictions can also be seen in the famous Kim brothers. Kim Pu1i was an orthodox Con- fucianist, but even so located the center of this world in Kory0, as did his elder brother Pusik. They can hardly be called confirmed pluralists, but they showed some distinctly pluralist traits, notably in their perception of Kory0 as an inde- pendent realm and in their pragmatic diplomacy, which was certainly not di- vorced from ideological motivations. 90 One of the defining traits of pluralism in Kory0 was the acceptance of the simultaneous though not equilocal existence of several sons of Heaven. 91 Para- mount Kory0 state rituals that ensured the continued well-being of the state and the people were planned and performed in a manner that emphasized this no- tion. Reflections of this idea found their way into poems as well. An on-the- spot poem by mid-Kory0 statesman Yi Chij0 92 during the banquet in honor of the inauguration of a new palace in S0gy0ng expresses this belief in the inde- pendence of Kory0 as a realm. Parts of the poem went as follows: “An emperor rose in Chin [Korea] and ascended the throne” 93 continuing with “at last, you have obtained the forces of the great flowering 94 by relying on fortune-telling. . . . [Y]ou will also have your capital in the middle of Heaven and earth.” 95 The im- age of Kory0—centered in S0gy0ng—as the center in between Heaven and earth is a powerful symbol of the Kory0-centrism that characterized the majority of r e m c o e . b r e u k e r : Kory0 as an Independent Realm 61 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 61 Kory0 literati. Another example of Kory0-centrism is provided by Kim Puil, the second eldest Kim brother. The Song emperor read his celebratory text in honor of the p’algwanhoe, and although he found some overtly Kory0-centric elements in it presumptuous, he nonetheless admired its style. 96 Kim Puil was less orthodoxly Confucian and showed more elements of nativism than his two younger brothers, as can be learned from his extant writings. 97 Elements of Kory0-centrism are easily traced in the several kinds of congratulatory texts in honor of major state rituals. In point of fact, the Kory0-centrism apparent from these texts is the very element that binds together texts as diverse as cel- ebrations for Buddha’s birthday, Daoist rituals in honor of the deceased, and rituals in homage of the gods and spirits of the land. 98 The list of examples is virtually endless. It should be noted, however, that there are many variations in nuance and emphasis; some literati show, for instance, fear of the northern dynasties, but others do not. The shared assumption of the possibility of com- peting ideologies—and Sons of Heaven—by no means presupposed agreement in other areas. Rather the opposite, one would hazard to say. Apart from the variety of opinions espoused by these Kory0 literati, it should also not be overlooked that the Kory0-centrist elements in their thought were balanced by the realization that Kory0 was not alone in the world, nor was the Kory0 ruler the only ruler under Heaven. In practice, this ideological posi- tion translated into realistic and relatively easy dealing with foreign powers, be it the Song or the Liao. It is among other things reflected in many extant writings of these pluralist literati. Pak Illyang and Kim Puil left a number of writings that extol the virtue and culture of the Song emperor. 99 And as if to underscore the significance of the Chinese or non-Chinese Son of Heaven vis-à-vis the Kory0 Son of Heaven in the pluralist worldview, Kim K1kki, who wrote many texts testifying to his Kory0-centric beliefs, praised the Jin emperor when he was dis- patched as an envoy to the Jin court. 100 Those mid-Kory0 literati, who have received rather less attention from historians than their more radical contemporaries, have another trait in common. They share an outstanding judgment of the international situation. This diplo- matic insight was fostered by the fact that most if not all of these leading literati had been abroad on diplomatic missions. A nonexhaustive list of people who went abroad on diplomatic missions at least once includes the following names of pluralist scholar-officials: Yun 3ni, Kim Puil, Yi Chij0, Yun Kwan, Ch’oe S0k, Pak Illyang, Ch’oe Sahun, Ch0ng K1g’y0ng, Kim Yanggam, Yi Charyang. Cross- referencing this admittedly incomplete list against a list of the most important mid-Kory0 statesmen and scholars yields a surprising result. All of these offi- cials, whose ideological views are often not taken into account or not given enough balanced consideration, occupied high and visible posts within the cen- tral bureaucracy and in the intellectual life of middle Kory0. 101 These scholar- officials held the palace lectures for the ruler, they expounded the Chinese 62 k o r e a n s t u d i e s , v o l . 2 7 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 62 classics, and they engaged in public in philosophical, historical, and literary dis- cussions. 102 No records survive of those debates, which makes it hard, but not impossible to explore the views these men held. In a moving and lengthy memorial letter written to exonerate himself from accusations of treason and plotting, 103 Yun 3ni, son of Yun Kwan and witness to or participant in all major events of the twelfth century until the military coup, reveals some of the inner workings of the pluralist worldview. In his memorial, he insists on his sincerity and innocence and while doing so, argues that his sup- port of some of the goals that Myoch’0ng tried to realize was by no means trea- son, but on the contrary a continuation and confirmation of Kory0 native tradi- tion. 104 The importance of Yun 3ni’s memorial partly lies in the reference he makes to past imperial practices that were apparently common knowledge (at least among the educated literati). It also puts in perspective the reaction of the suzerain (at that time the Tang) to this kind of blasphemous behavior. More- over, 3ni provides us with a “view from within”; it becomes a little clearer why leading mid-Kory0 scholars could and did sympathize with Myoch’0ng. In these respects Yun 3ni is typical of the pluralist scholar-official of middle Kory0. He shared a fundamental sense of Kory0-centrism with Myoch’0ng, but his capacity to realistically assess the international political situation and the desirability of a Kory0 emperor—as opposed to a Kory0 Son of Heaven—ultimately led him to distance himself from the exclusivist Weltanschauung of Myoch’0ng. The universe as constructed by Kory0 literati thus attached much signi- ficance to Kory0’s place in it and the place of Kory0’s ruler in the universal scheme. It remains to be determined where the provenance of this pluralist world- view lies. There are theories that this concept of a “small realm” is in a way a continuation of Kogury0’s worldview. 105 There is also a theory that the King Tongmy0ng worship of Paekche was conducive to the formation of a pluralist worldview. Further research is needed to establish the origins and background of Kory0’s pluralist worldview, but it was present when Wang K0n unified the peninsula under his rule. Sources of the early Kory0 period are scarce indeed, but some aspects of Kory0’s construction of an alternative realm can be traced back to the periods of the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla, 106 while the gen- eral tone of Wang K0n’s Ten Injunctions merits further investigation in this re- spect. 107 Another factor supporting the argument that this kind of worldview has ancient origins is the remarkable admission—and absorption—of roughly 200,000 refugees from Parhae, most of whom were of Kogury0 descent. 108 The admission of large segments of (perceived) Kogury0 descendants from Parhae will also have strengthened the idea of Kory0 as a separate realm. 109 The adroit foreign policies of Kory0 during the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies suggest as much, but the fact that pluralist literati could include other coun- tries as their ontological equals meant that they could unfold very realistic for- eign policies that were not necessarily separated from their worldview. The r e m c o e . b r e u k e r : Kory0 as an Independent Realm 63 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 63 importance of being able to act against the background of a firmly established— yet very flexible—worldview should not be underestimated; worldviews are ac- cepted, adapted, and maintained for the reason that they offer—even if perhaps only incompletely or implicitly—answers to fundamental questions that all cultures have to deal with. 110 Seen from one point of view, the diplomacy un- dertaken by such figures as Pak Illyang, Kim Puil, and Yun 3ni can perhaps be called pragmatic, but at the same time, it was not separated from its ideologi- cal moorings. Even the diplomatic actions of such Confucian scholars as Kim Pusik and Kim Pu1i show strong pluralist influences; both brothers believed in the centrality of their own court, despite the inherent contradictory nature of this position for a Confucian Kory0 literatus. 111 A practical advantage of the embracing of a pluralist ideology and possi- bly a reason for its sustained presence in Kory0 may be offered here. The am- biguity inherent in a pluralist worldview ensures the potentiality for change. For as long as a pluralist mindset is maintained, the possibility of employing new interpretations to deal with new situations is available, without having to resort to a fundamental change in worldview. Conversely, far-reaching changes in a worldview can be accommodated without having to discard the old world- view. Pluralist ideology is in a way the prime example of how group identities are formed, negotiated, and maintained, not through dogmatic adherence to a mythical group essence, but through the constant adjustments of the boundaries that signify what elements do and what elements do not belong to a certain iden- tity. 112 Identity is located not in the core, but in the peripheral boundaries. “Soft” boundaries ensure that drastic changes and adjustments can take place without concomitant changes in group identity; they also make sure that the actual con- tents of an identity can change without being severed from external cultures, worldviews or theories. 113 Every culture, every group is defined by the bound- aries that guard its continued existence; in the case of pluralism, the leeway the boundary mechanism has at its disposal is maximized. Hence the longevity and the flexibility of pluralist ideology. 114 If one resorts to dichotomizing, the cru- cial function of the boundary mechanism is hidden from sight. Crude dichoto- mies (Buddhism/Confucianism, China/Kory0, sinified/barbarian, and so forth) employed in the descriptions and analyses of Kory0 society and politics have hidden the subtle patterning of its history. By its very definition, pluralist ideol- ogy is made up of a range of potentially conflicting and contradictory elements. This fundamental ambiguity is at the heart of Kory0 pluralism, and the reason that it can be tolerated finds its origins in an aggregate of competing ideas, in- stead of a synthesis or clash of radically abstracted principles. 115 Instead of rad- ically abstracting and thus choosing what is to be privileged and what is to be left out, incoming information is, as it were, seen as successive rather than com- petitive. The plurality of systems of thought that Kory0 literati were faced with were not digested into manageable parcels of meaning that were perceived as 64 k o r e a n s t u d i e s , v o l . 2 7 Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 64 representing all essential elements of reality. This would involve the privi- leging of certain elements over others—by endowing the privileged ones with “reality”—which necessarily causes contradictions and inconsistencies to come into being. The abstraction and “digestion” of the incoming disordered abun- dance of perceptions and experiences was temporarily “ignored” in favor of per- ceiving them as aggregates. In this way, competing ideologies can be positioned next to each other instead of facing each other. The relatively easy switching between ideologies that characterizes the Kory0 literati mentioned above can be explained in this manner. The rejection of crude dichotomizations of phe- nomena and concepts makes it possible to accommodate contradiction and in- consistency, because they are not (yet) “actively” viewed as such. Despite claims to the contrary, all thought and belief systems possess a minimum of shared el- ements that ensure mutual commensurability—ambiguity in other words. 116 Plu- ralist ideology utilizes this fundamental trait by incorporating difference, con- tradiction and inconsistency without actualizing them. Only when the boundaries that guard group identity need to change, when pressure is brought to bear upon them, do these boundaries harden. In other words, one potentiality within the structural ambiguity that characterizes pluralist ideologies is then realized at Download 347.48 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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