Medieval and early modern periods 1206
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- King Chamaraja Wodeyar IX (1868–1894)
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Cheluvambe, a queen of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar I (r. 1714 – 1732), was an accomplished Kannada writer. Her notable works include Varanandi Kalyana, written in the sangatya metre. The story narrates the wedding of Varanandi, the daughter of the Badshah (Emperor) of Delhi, and the god Cheluvaraya Swamy of Melkote. In the writing, the author envisioned Varanandi to be a reincarnation of Satyabhama, the consort of the Hindu god Krishna. Her other compositions include Venkatachala Mahatmyam – a lullaby song written in choupadi (4-line verse) metre in devotion to the Hindu god Venkateshwara residing on the Vrishabha hill, songs centred on Alamelu Mangamma, the consort of the Hindu god Venkateshwara of Tirupati, and songs in praise of the god Cheluvanarayana. Shalyada Krishnaraja, a poet and a member from the royal family was proficient writer in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit. His contributions to Kannada literature include devotional songs, vachana poems, compositions in sangatya metre (Nija Dipika Ratna), gadya (Anubhava Rasayana), and kirthane compositions (Bhakti Marga Sarovara, Gnana Sarovara and Shalyada Arasinavara Tikina Kirtane). Nanjaraja was the most noted of the Shaiva writers in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (r. 1734 – 1766). For his literary taste, he earned the honorific "Nutana Bhojaraja", a comparison to the medieval King Bhoja. A native of Kalale town near Nanjangud, Nanjaraja came from an influential family of warriors, statesman and scholars. He was politically active and is known to have created a power centre, holding court in parallel to Krishnaraja II. He was proficient in multiple languages and authored more than twenty writings in Kannada, Sanskrit and Telugu. Among his Kannada writings, Kukudgiri Mahatmya, and a musical composition called Aravattu muvara trivadhi, an account of the life of 63 ancient devotees of the god Shiva, is well known. Other well-known Shaiva writers were Chenniah, who wrote in the sangatya metre (Padmini Parinaya, 1720), Nuronda, who eulogised his patron Krishnaraja II in Soundarya Kavya (c. 1740) in sangatya metre, and Sankara Kavi (Chorabasava Charitre, 18th century). Linganna Kavi wrote a champu historical piece called Keladinripavijayam in the 1763 – 1804 period accounting for the chronology and history of the Keladi dynasty. The work also gives useful information about contemporary kingdoms and states including the Nawabs of Savanur, the Marathas and the Mughals. Notable Jain writers of the period were Payanna (Ahimsacharitre), Padmaraja (Pujyapada Charitre, 1792), Padmanabha (Ramachandra Charitre), Surala (Padmavati Charitre), and Jayendra (Karnataka Kuvalayananda). Vaishnava writers who distinguished themselves were Lakshmakavi (Bharata in 1728 and Rukmangada Charite), Venkatesha (Halasya Mahatmya, in champu metre), Konayya (Krishnarjuna Sangara), Timmamatya (Ramabhyudaya Kathakusumamanjari, a version of the epic Ramayana), Timmarya of Anekal (Ananda Ramayana, 1708), Balavaidya Cheluva (Lilavati, and an encyclopedia of precious stones called Ratnasastra), and Puttayia (Maisuru Arasugala Purvabhyudaya, c. 1713, an account of the history of the Kingdom of Mysore). 289 | P a g e
Age of prose and drama After the death of Tipu Sultan in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799), the British took control of the kingdom. They however restored the Wodeyars in the smaller princely state of Mysore under the paramountcy of the British Raj. The British took direct control of the administration of the kingdom in 1831, after which Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III devoted all his time to developing the fine arts, earning him the honorific "Abhinava Bhoja" (lit. "Modern Bhoja"). Krishnaraja III (1799 – 1868) is called the "Morning Star of the Renaissance in Karnataka". A patron of the fine arts, he was an accomplished writer, musician, musicologist and composer. He gave munificent grants to scholars and was a prolific writer himself. Of the over forty writings attributed to him, a prose romance called Saugandhika Parinaya, in two versions (a sangatya composition and a play) is best known. In this writing, the author imaginatively narrates the story of the sage Durvasa who curses Devendra (the Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of King Sugandharaya of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra. Apart from composing many devotional songs to his deity, the Hindu goddess Chamundeshwari (pen-name "Chamundi"), he authored three noteworthy treatises: Sri Tatwanidhi and Swara Chudamani (on music) in Sanskrit language and Kannada script, and Sara Sangraha Bharata (on dance and music), dealing with tala (rhythm) in the Kannada language.
Aliya Lingaraja Urs, a native of Heggadadevanakote and a son-in-law (Aliya) of Maharaja Krishnaraja III was a prolific writer with over fifty works spanning various genres: devotional songs, musical compositions, kavya (classical poems), over thirty Yakshagana plays, and other dramas. The author used multiple pen-names including, "lingaraja" and "linganripa". For his contributions to the fine arts, he earned the title Ubhaya Kavita Visharada (lit. "Master of poetry in two languages" – Kannada and Sanskrit). Among his best-known Kannada works are the poem Prabhavati Parinaya and the two versions of the classical epic Girija Kalyana ("Marriage of the mountain born goddess"), in Yakshagana style and in sangatya metre. The writing gives an account of the Girija, the daughter of Himavanta, her youthful days and her successful penance which resulted in her marriage to the Hindu god Shiva. Yadava, also a court-poet, penned two prose pieces, Kalavati Parinaya (1815) in the dandaka vritta (blank verse) metre and Vachana Kadambari, a prose rendering of the classical Sanskrit original by poet Bana. The Jain poet Devachandra (1770 – 1841), a native of Kankagiri, was in the court of Krishnaraja III and authored three noted works: Pujyapada Charite, a poem on the life of the Jain saint Pujyapada in sangatya metre; Ramakathavatara, the poet's Jain version of the Hindu epic Ramayana in champu metre; and Rajavalikathe (1838), a biographical account of the Mysore royal family, some earlier poets, and stories of religious importance. Another Jain writer of merit was Chandrasagaravarni, author of Kadambapurana and other works. Devalapurada Nanjunda of Nanjangud, a mere court attendant, rose to the level of a court poet for his scholarship in Kannada and Sanskrit.
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Among his many compositions, Sougandhika Parinaya in sangatya metre, Samudra Mathana Kathe (a Yakshagana play), Sri Krishna Sarvabhoumara Charitre in sangatya metre, and Krishnendra Gite in choupadi metre are well-known. He earned the honorific Ubhaya Bhasha Kavi ("Poet of two languages"). Modern Kannada prose saw its nascent beginning in 1823 with Mudra Manjusha ("Seal Casket"). It is an elaboration of a play summarised in the Sanskrit original, Mudra Rakshasa by Vishakadatta, and was written by Kempu Narayana, a court poet of Maharaja Krishnaraja III. External influences Eager to spread their gospel in Kannada, Christian missionaries took to the Kannada language. The establishment of the printing press and English language education had a positive effect on Kannada prose. Periodicals and newspapers were published for the first time. The first Kannada language book was printed in 1817 and the first Bible in 1820. Grammar books and dictionaries, meant to help the missionaries in their effort in spreading Christianity, became available. Rev. W. Reeve compiled the earliest English-Kannada dictionary in 1824 followed by a Kannada-English dictionary in 1832, though the best-known work is an 1894 publication by Rev. Ferdinand Kittel. Rev. William Carrey published the earliest Kannada grammar in 1817. The influence of English literature and poetry on Kannada was evident from the numerous songs of prayer composed by the missionaries. British officers Lewis Rice and John Faithfull Fleet deciphered numerous Kannada inscriptions. Rice published several ancient classics and a brief history of Kannada literature while Fleet published folk ballads such as Sangoli Rayana Dange ("Sangoli Raya's Revolt"). The first Kannada newspaper, Mangalura Samachara ("Mangalore News"), was published in Mangalore in 1843. In a few years, printing presses opened in many locations, including at the Mysore palace in 1840.
A surge in the generation of prose narratives and dramatic literature, inspired by writings in English, Sanskrit, modern Marathi and modern Bengali languages culminated in original works in the succeeding decades. In the field of prose, translation of English classics such as Yatrikana Sanchara (The Pilgrim's Progress by Bunyan, 1847) and Robinson Crusoe (1857) set the trend. Translations from vernacular languages were popular too and included the Marathi classic Yamuna Prayatana (1869) and the Bengali work Durgesanandini (1885). In the genre of drama, inspiration came from translations of Sanskrit and English plays. Shakuntala and Raghavendrarao Nataka (Othello) by Churamuri Sehagiri Rao (1869), Pramilarjuniya by Srikantesa Gowda and Vasanthayamini Swapnachamatkara Nataka by K. Vasudevachar (Midsummer Night's Dream), Macbeth by Srikantesa Gowda, King Lear by M.S. Puttanna, Ramavarma- Lilavati (Romeo and Juliet) by C. Ananda Rao paved the way. Basavappa Shastry (1882), a native of Mysore and court poet of Maharaja Krishnaraja III and Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, earned the honorific Kannada Nataka Pitamaha (lit. "Father of Kannada stage") for his contributions to drama. His contribution to dramatic literature in the form of anthologies, translations and adaptations from English and Sanskrit, learned editions, and successful integration of
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musical compositions into drama is well accepted. His translations from English to Kannada include Shurasena Charite ("Othello"). His Sanskrit to Kannada translations include, Kalidasa, Abhignyana Shakuntala, Vikramorvasheeya, Malavikagnimitra, Uttara Rama Charite, Chanda Koushika Nataka, Malathi Madhava and Ratnavali. Other well- known Kannada writers in Chamaraja IX's court were S.G. Narasimhacharya, Dhondo Narasimha Mulabaglu, Santa Kavi and B. Ventakacharya. The earliest modern novels in the Kannada language are the Suryakantha by Lakshman Gadagkar (1892) and the Indrabayi (1899) by Gulvadi Venkata Rao. The later work is reformist and decried corruption and encouraged widow remarriages. Suri Venkataramana Shastri's modern social play Iggappa Heggadeya Vivaha Prahasana ("Iggappa Heggade's farce of marriage", 1887) and Dhareswar's Kanya Vikraya (1887) carried a similar reformist outlook while Santa Kavi's Vatsalaharana (1885) drew upon mythological and folk themes. Developments up to the mid-20th century In 1881, the British handed back administrative powers to the Wodeyar family. Up to 1947, when the kingdom acceded to the Union of India, the incumbent Maharaja was assisted by a Diwan (Prime minister), the administrative chief of Mysore. These were times of positive social and economic change, the independence movement and modern nationalism, all of which had an impact on literature. Kannada literature saw the blossoming of the Navodaya (lit. "New beginning") style of writings in genres such as lyrical poems, drama, novels and short stories, with the strong influence of English literature. B. M. Srikantaiah's English Geetagalu ("English songs", 1921) was the path-breaker in the genre of modern lyrical poetry. The earliest stalwarts in the field of modern historical drama and comedy were T. P. Kailasam and A.N. Swami Venkatadri Iyer (also called "Samsa"). Kailasam sought to critique social developments by producing plays that questioned the utility of the modern education system in Tollu Gatti (1918, "The Hollow and the Solid") and the dowry system in Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the Mangalsutra"). Samsa's ideal king, Narasaraja Wodeyar, is the protagonist of the play Vigada Vikramarya ("The Wicked Vikramarya", 1925). Initial development in the genre of historical novels, in the form of translations and original works, sought to re-kindle the nationalistic feelings of Kannadigas. Venkatachar (Anandamatha) and Galaganath were among the first to write such novels. Galaganath's Madhava Karuna Vilasa (1923) described the founding of the Vijayanagara empire, while his Kannadigara Karmakatha ("Kannadigas Fateful Tale") described the empire's decline. In 1917, Alur Venkata Rao wrote the famous Karnataka Ghata Vaibhava, a summary of earlier works by Fleet, Rice, Bhandarkar and Robert Sewell, appealing to the Kannadigas to remember their glorious past, their ancient traditions and culture, their great rulers, saints and poets. Other well-known works were Kerur Vasudevachar's Yadu Maharaja describing the rise of the Wodeyar dynasty, and Vasudevaiah's Arya Kirti (1896). The tradition of novels started by Gulvadi Venkata Rao 292 | P a g e
(1899) reached maturity in 1915 with M.S. Puttanna's Madidunno Maharaya ("Sir, as you sow, so you reap"), a historical novel written in flowing prose and whose theme is set in the times of Maharaja Krishnaraja III. To Puttanna also goes the credit for writing the earliest modern biography, Kunigal Ramashastriya Charitre ("The story of Kunigal Ramashastri"). The genre of short story made its initial beginnings with Panje Mangesh Rao, M.N. Kamath and Kerur Vasudevachar, but it was Masti Venkatesh Iyengar who stole the limelight with and set a trend for others to follow in his Kelavu Sanne Kathegalu ("A few short stories", 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short stories", 1924).
Mysore Musicians (1638-1947) Vaikunta Dasaru (1680)
Veena Venkata Subbiah 1750 Shunti Venkataramaniah 1780 Mysore Sadashiva Rao 1790
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III 1799 -
1868 Aliya Lingaraja Urs 1823 –
Chikka Lakshminaranappa
Pedda
Lakshminaranappa
Devalapurada Nanjunda Veena Shamanna 1832 -
1908 Veena Padmanabiah 1842 - 1900
Veena Sheshanna 1852 -
1926 Mysore Karigiri Rao 1853 - 1927
Sosale Ayya Shastry 1854 -
1934 Veena Subbanna 1861 - 1939
Mysore Vasudevachar
1865- 1961 293 | P a g e
Bidaram Krishnappa 1866 - 1931
T. Pattabhiramiah 1863
Jayarayacharya 1846-
1906 Giribhattara Tammayya 1865 - 1920
Nanjangud Subba Shastry
1834 - 1906
Chandrashekara Shastry
Chinniah 1902 Veena Subramanya Iyer 1864 - 1919 Muthiah Bhagavatar
1877 -
1945 Veena Shivaramiah 1886 - 1946
Veena Venkatagiriappa 1887 -
1952 Srinivasa Iyengar 1888 - 1952
Chikka Ramarao 1891 -
1945 T. Chowdiah
1894 -
1967 Jayachamaraja Wodeyar
1974 Dr.B. Devendrappa 1899 - 1986
G. Narayana Iyengar 1903 -
1959 T. Subramanya Iyer
Anavatti Rama Rao 1860 Tiger Varadachariar 1876 - 1950
Chennakeshaviah 1895 -
1986 T. Krishna Iyengar 1902 - 1997
S.N. Mariappa 1914 -
1986 1916 - 1985
R.N.Doreswamy 1916 -
2002 294 | P a g e
Dr. V Doraiswamy Iyengar 1920 -
1997 Vaidyalinga Bhagavatar 1924 - 1999
This period heralded the beginning of British control over the administration of Mysore and the start of an important period in the development of vocal and instrumental Carnatic music in south India. King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a trained musician, musicologist and composer of merit. Being a devotee of the Hindu goddess Chamundeshwari, he wrote all his compositions under the mudra (pen name) "'Chamundi'" or "'Chamundeshwari'". He composed many philosophically themed javali (light lyric) and devotional songs in the Kannada language under the title Anubhava pancharatna. Javali in Carnatic music have their roots in Mysore and are first mentioned in the king's writings as javadi. His scholarship in Kannada is acclaimed and his compositions are seen as parallels to the vachana poems of the Virashaiva poets and to the devotional songs (pada) of the Haridasas of Karnataka. Mysore Sadashiva Rao was born in Greemspet in the Chittoor district of modern Andhra Pradesh to a Maharashtrian family. He came to Mysore between 1825 and 1835 and served as a court musician to the incumbent king for nearly fifty years. His compositions are said to have been in the hundreds, though only about one hundred, written in Sanskrit and Telugu under the pen name "Sadashiva", still exist. He is known as the reviver of Carnatic music in the Karnataka region. Veena Venkatasubbiah came from a Mysorean family of famous veena artists ( or "vainika") of the time of King Haider Ali and belonged to the Badaganadu community. He was appointed music teacher to King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III by his minister (or "Dewan") Purniah, who wanted to make Mysore the cultural centre of south India just as Vijayanagara had been during the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire. His most famous composition is the Sapta taleshwari gite. Some historians claim the work was a combined effort by the king and the musician. The king's son-in-law, Aliya Lingraj Urs, was an authority and composer in both the Kannada and Sanskrit languages. A native of Heggadadevanakote (in modern Mysore district), he had several interests in the fine arts. He has over fifty works including compositions, dramas, and Yakshagana to his credit, all of which were written with a pen name beginning with "Linga", such as "Lingendra" or "Lingaraja". His most famous compositions in Kannada are titled "Chandravali jogi hadu", "Pancha vimshati leele" and "Amba kirtana", and in Sanskrit, the "Shringara lahari". Shunti Venkataramaniah was a musician from Tiruvayyar (modern Tamil Nadu) and an expert at playing the tambura. He was introduced to the king by the court musician Veena Venkatasubbiah under unusual
circumstances. When
Venkataramaniah first met Veena Venkatasubbiah, the latter asked him to sing a particular tune. Unable to sing it, Venkataramaniah walked away, only to return a year later having mastered the tune. While singing the tune, Venkataramaniah went into a trance and the court musician hurried to the palace and requested the king to be audience to the singer. The king arrived there and was so pleased with
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Venkataramaniah's voice he appointed him as a court musician. Venkataramaniah's most famous composition is the Lakshana gite. Chinniah was the eldest son of a family known as the "Tanjore quartet", a quartet of brothers who were singers and composers. Before his arrival in Mysore, Chinniah served at the court of the Tanjore kings Sarabhoji II and Shivaji II. He had learnt music from Muthuswamy Dikshitar. At the court of the king of Mysore, Chinniah created several compositions in praise of his patron king and the local deity Chamundeshwari. Famous among these compositions are Ninnu koriyunna, Vanajalochana, Nivanti, Chakkani na mohanaguni, Manavigai konarada and several javali. Veena Chikka Lakshminaranappa, an expert vainika, was a descendant of Krishnappa, a Mysore court musician during the time of Bettada Chamaraja Wodeyar in the 16th century. Chikka Lakshminaranappa became the chief musician in the Prasanna Krishnaswamy temple located within the palace premises. His two sons Krishnappa and Seenappa, who were later patronised by the kings of Mysore, were also proficient players of the veena and violin. Well known visiting musicians to the court during this time included Pallavi Gopalayyar, Veena Kuppayyar, Tiruvattiyur Thyagayyar, Veena Krishnayya and Suryapurada Ananda Dasaru. King Chamaraja Wodeyar IX (1868–1894) King Chamaraja Wodeyar IX was also a patron of the fine arts and literature, having been tutored by his own court musicians Veena Sheshanna and Veena Subbanna. The king was well versed in the violin and often participated, along with other musicians, in violin performances at the Krishna temple located in the palace premises. He is known to have helped many budding artists, both by patronage of their talent and in their personal difficulties. He sponsored Mysore Vasudevacharya (who later became a famous musician) to train at Tiruvayyar under the famous Patnam Subramanya Iyer. He also formed the "Amateur Drama Club" to encourage young artists. However, he died at the early age of 32 while travelling in Kolkata. Veena Shamanna was the son of Rama Bhagavatar, an immigrant from Tanjore who came to Mysore during a famine, seeking royal patronage. His birth name was Venkata Subramanya. In 1876, Veena Shamanna was appointed court musician for his talent in both vocal and instrumental classical music. He was known as "Tala Brahma" for his mastery of the veena, violin, ghata and swarabhat. A conservative artist, he played by the norms of theorical classical music and was a tutor to the royal family. In honour of his achievements, a street in Mysore city was named after him. His compositions were published by his son Veena Subramanya Iyer in a book called Sangeeta samayasara in 1915. Veena Padmanabiah, a native of Sriramapura (also known as Budihalu in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Karnataka), was trained in classical vocal and veena in his early days by a disciple of Veena Shamanna. Later, under the guidance of Veena Shamanna, Padmanabiah's expertise grew. An incident at the king's palace during his youth made him popular and impressed the king. A well-known musician called Veena |
