The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Allmark-KentC
Postcolonial Ecocriticism (2010)
that the concepts in Ghassan Hage’s Against Allmark-Kent 41 Paranoid Nationalism (2003) could be applied to the Canadian context (129). We can perhaps recognize in Atwood’s language the “self-perpetuating victim rhetoric of a ‘paranoid nationalism’ in which majority culture is seen, and depends on being seen, to be under permanent threat” (129). Indeed Roy Miki’s critique of this attitude in Broken Entries (1998) does make such a connection. He argues that “Canadian nationalists,” like Margaret Atwood in Survival , […] adopted the language of victimization to place ‘Canadian’ cultural identity in opposition to its external enemies, American and British imperialisms. This triadic model justified a reductive ‘Canadianness’—a cultural lineage linked to an essentialized British past —that elided the relations of dominance inside the country. (131) It is with perhaps uneasy recognition of this element of her argument that the literary animal studies critics who borrow Atwood’s analysis of Seton and Roberts tend to ignore her claims that Canadians themselves are victimized animals too. Considering Atwood’s words, and particularly those of Polk in his opening to “Lives of the Hunted,” there is perhaps a further connection between a ‘fanged’ America and ‘persecuted’ Canadian animals. Although none of the critics here make any overt reference to it, I suggest that the subtext of the Nature Fakers controversy could be a factor. We cannot overlook the significance of the fact that the two most vocal and influential detractors of the wild animal story were John Burroughs and Theodore Roosevelt —both enormously powerful authorities on nature in North America at the time. And whilst the work of American authors Jack London and William J. Long were criticized alongside Seton and Roberts, the wild animal story nonetheless remains a Canadian genre, and so making the literary debate into a debate across national borders as well. Polk’s embarrassment at E.O. Wilson’s fantasy of a Canada populated with Seton’s characters surely demonstrates some Allmark-Kent 42 residue of post-Nature Fakers anxiety. Likewise, I suggest that the impulse to turn these characters into complex allegories for the Canadian psyche is Atwood’s way of emulating a degree of the American anthropocentrism Polk describes; animals in literature are “always symbols” (75) she claims, and nature poetry is “seldom just about Nature” (49). It is useful here to recall Glen A. Love’s argument in Practical Ecocriticism discussed in the previous chapter: It is one of the great mistaken ideas of anthropocentric thinking (and thus one of the cosmic ironies) that society is complex while nature is simple [...] That literature in which nature plays a significant role is, by definition, irrelevant and inconsequential. That nature is dull and uninteresting, while society is sophisticated and interesting. (23) From this perspective then, the embarrassment of these Canadian critics is unsurprising, and we must not forget that Survival and “Lives of the Hunted” were published long before ecocriticism or literary animal studies had developed. Now, however, critics interested in anti-anthropocentric depictions of either animals or the natural environment would do well to look to Canadian literature. For instance, writing in the late 1990s just as these areas of research were beginning to gain ground, Susan Glickman introduces her monograph, The Picturesque and the Sublime: a Poetics of the Canadian Landscape (1998), by justifying her topic: Writing a book about the poetics of Canadian landscape presupposes that landscape is a legitimate subject for literature. In Canada, this has always been taken for granted; we have assumed that engagement with the land is a subject of intense interest and depictions of its grandeur, immensity and variety a primary source of aesthetic pleasure. (3) As literary criticism continues to extend its interest beyond the merely human, perhaps the Canadian fascination with the ‘non-human’ (both animals and the natural environment) could become a source of pride rather than embarrassment. |
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