English Grammar: a resource Book for Students
Download 1.74 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
English Grammar- A Resource Book for Students
glass of wine). However, count uses of these nouns are by no means unusual.
6. There were several wines on show. 7. He drank a few beers. 8. The waters were rising. These uses have a variety of motivations. As far as wine is concerned, human beings find it highly relevant to their everyday concerns to divide the phenomenon into various subtypes. Since each such subtype is an individuated entity, it is designated by a count noun, as in (6). Example (7) can also be interpreted in this way (that is, as meaning that he drank a few types of beer), but it is more likely to be used to refer to a rather different kind of countable phenomenon such as the contents of a container (He drank several wines, Two sugars please). In (8) floods are typically fed by water from different sources (for example, different rivers), so that even after they 196 E X T E N S I O N have merged, they can still be conceptualised as different entities. (This usage may also be motivated by the fact that flood water manifests itself in different places.) In objective terms the nature of the phenomenon in (8) is of course no different from any other manifestation of water as a mass. If the claim were that objective criteria determined linguistic form, then this usage would constitute a powerful counter- example. But if language reflects conceptualisation, it is not difficult to identify a cognitive basis for the example. So far, it has been argued that mass phenomena are characterised by internal homogeneity. Let me now consider nouns such as cutlery, furniture, and crockery. These phenomena seem to constitute a counterexample to the argument, since they refer to collections of discrete, countable entities. The motivation for their assimilation to the mass category has to do with the level at which the concept applies. A set of knives, forks, and spoons can either be construed as a collection of separate objects performing different functions (cutting food, picking up food, stirring liquids) or as a collection of objects which manifest themselves contiguously and which all perform the same function (facilitating the consumption of food). At this level, any part of the phenomenon counts as equivalent to any other part. Similarly, a collection of chairs, tables, and cupboards is subject to alternative construals. We can think of them either as a group of separate objects or as a unitary entity with a single function – that is, as ‘furniture’. Note, however, that more general levels of categorisation do not always produce a mass noun in English. The concept ‘tool’, for example, constitutes a superordinate category with respect to hammers, screwdrivers, drills, and so on, but tool is never- theless a count noun. As in the case of ‘cutlery’, we are dealing here with an experien- tially related set of entities that perform different functions at one level and a single function at a more abstract level. But the grammatical character of the form tools continues to foreground the essentially plural nature of the phenomenon. On the other hand, the same set of entities could be designated by the mass noun equipment, which foregrounds their functional unity. This observation helps to explain the contrast between fruit and vegetables. Like cutlery, furniture, crockery, and equipment the word fruit is a manifestation of a general pattern in the language, such that the grammatical character of the word foregrounds the pragmatic contiguity and functional similarity of the entities that constitute the category. Vegetables is a manifestation of a different pattern, whereby the abstraction to a superordinate level is realised lexically but where the grammatical character of the word continues to highlight the essentially plural and diverse nature of the phenomenon, as in the case of the word tools. Again, there is nothing in reality that requires the language to work in this way (that is, nothing that requires a grammatical distinction between fruit and vegetables), but there is no difficulty in identifying characteristics of the phenomenon that motivate the distinction. The contrast between clothing and clothes constitutes a similar case. Whereas the unitary nature of the phenomenon is captured by the fact that the word clothing has only a singular form, the diverse nature of the objects that constitute the category and the fact that different items normally occur together are reflected in the fact that clothes has only a plural form. |
Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling