Towards a General Theory of Translational Action : Skopos Theory Explained
particular translation type (which may be influenced by the commissioner)
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Towards a General Theory of Translational Action Skopos Theory Explained by Katharina Reiss, Hans J Vermeer (z-lib.org) (2)
particular translation type (which may be influenced by the commissioner). All these conditions determine, to a greater or lesser degree, the translation process and the translatum resulting from the translator’s actions (the term ‘translator’ may also refer to a team of translators). The producer (sender: S 1 ) of the source text presents the text as an offer of information to a sourceculture audience (recipients: R 1 ). The actual reception of the text starts a process of communication (C), which is governed by the specific characteristics of the information offer (IO). The text itself can be considered from two perspectives, as described below. First, it is an individual text. With the exception of completely standardized texts (e.g. a blank form), each text is an individual text in that it represents the individual choice of linguistic signs producers make in order to verbalize their offer of information (the paper it is printed on would therefore be only of peripheral interest for the individuality of a text). Second, each text represents, to a greater or lesser degree, a genre, i.e. a class of supraindividual speech or writing acts associated with recurring communicative interactions and which therefore have developed certain conventional linguistic and formal patterns; these may differ considerably from one culture to another. In our opinion, the concept of genre refers not only to pragmatic but also to literary texts. We do not share the elitist view that literary texts are unique, unrepeatable works of art, at least not in this generalizing form. Moreover, no text can be analysed without considering genre conventions (and these are particularly relevant for communicative translating). Even the fact that a particular text is characterized precisely by a creative breach of conventions can only be appreciated against the background of conventional style features. Furthermore, every text is a more or less successful example of a text type or set of text types in line with the translationoriented typology we shall dis cuss in chapter 12 . (Cf. Reiß [1971]2000 and 1976a). By text types, we are referring to certain basic, perhaps even universal, functions of communication which, as such, are independent of a particular culture, whereas the form in Katharina Reiß and Hans J. Vermeer 137 which they are verbalized is language and culturespecific. When planning how to produce a text, i.e. before verbalizing the surface structures, every text producer chooses one out of three basic communicative types. The choice is based on communicative intentions and determines whether the information offer will be primarily geared towards conveying information (‘informative text type’), acting as a work of art (‘expressive text type’), or trying to persuade the audience of something (‘operative text type’). The decision regarding which of these three basic functions takes precedence, and possibly their order of importance, will influence the choice of linguistic signs and force the translator to employ different translation strategies. This is not only true for entire texts but applies also to individual text passages or segments, which, in hybrid text types, may be intended to carry out a function other than the primary one (cf. Reiß 1978b: ��). With regard to the textual equivalence aimed at in communicative trans lating, we have to bear in mind that certain texts form a communicative unit with ‘texts’ from other sign systems. In such cases, the linguistic signs interact with the signs of other systems. For example: combinations of text and music, e.g. songs; combinations of text and images, e.g. picture books, advertising material, slides with captions; combinations of text plus sound plus images, e.g. cinema and television films. As this interaction has to be taken into account in communicative translating, we would suggest a fourth translationoriented text type (‘multimedial text type’) which can serve as a framework for the composition of the other three types. Apart from occasional comments on specific examples (cf. Spillner 1980 and Kaemmerling 1982), this text type has not been studied in depth yet, although it might require the development of a translationoriented media typology (analogous to the differentiation of types of translation strategy), as was suggested by a research team from the Phillips translation department in the Netherlands (cf. also Spillner 1980). The choice of linguistic signs for the composition of the source text as repre sentative of a certain text type and genre (or of hierarchies of text types and genres) is closely related to the situational context. The situational context, in turn, is characterized by various other factors, e.g. the time (T) and place (P) of the communicative event. Unlike facetoface interaction, communication via written texts (or texts preserved in other forms) is specific in that the producer and recipient(s) do not share the same ‘situation of perception’. The time and place of text production and the time and place of text reception may differ to a greater or lesser extent, and so will the influence they have on production and reception respectively. This splitting of situations changes the nature of the communicative process, which will then turn into a ‘oneway’ communi cation (Glinz 197�), where the recipients cannot verify their understanding Equivalence and adequacy 138 of the producer’s intention by asking direct questions, and where nonverbal aids to comprehension (gestures, facial expressions, prosody, deixis, etc.) will only be reproduced to a very limited extent (e.g. by punctuation, bold face or italics, etc.). (10) Have you read the text? (10a) Have you read the text? In facetoface communication, the difference in meaning between (10) and (10a) is made clear by intonation. In written communication, the readers’ comprehension will rely on the context, which, however, often lacks such clear indications. Another crucial factor relevant for translation is the sociocultural context in which the source text is set. Natural languages are not created in test tubes but shaped by the cultures of which they are a part. Lyons (1968: 4�2) comes to the general conclusion that the language of a particular society is an integral part of its culture, and that the lexical distinctions drawn by each language will tend to reflect the culturally important features of objects, institutions and activities in the society in which the language operates. However, the choice of linguistic signs when producing a particular offer of information is not only determined by the material provided by the language system (whether SL or TL) but also by language usage, i.e. the verbalization or nonverbalization of certain parts of communication (most English obitu aries, for example, do not explicitly mention the fact that somebody has passed away), the diverse genre conventions which may change through history (Reiß 1977), the knowledge presupposed in the audience, including the knowledge of other texts of either their own or other cultures, which is needed for under standing quotations and allusions, among other things, and the ‘background’ knowledge of the culture in general, etc. For example: (a) Presupposed knowledge: the title of a newspaper commentary Die Botschaft hör ich wohl… in the prestigious German weekly DIE ZEIT can only be fully understood by somebody who recognizes the reference to Goethe’s play Faust, Download 1.78 Mb. 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